AHA Scientific Statement

Kidney Disease as a Risk Factor for Development of Cardiovascular Disease

A Statement From the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention

Mark J. Sarnak, Andrew S. Levey, Anton C. Schoolwerth, Josef Coresh, Bruce Culleton, L. Lee Hamm, Peter A. McCullough, Bertram L. Kasiske, Ellie Kelepouris, Michael J. Klag, Patrick Parfrey, Marc Pfeffer, Leopoldo Raij, David J. Spinosa, Peter W. Wilson
https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000095676.90936.80
Circulation. 2003;108:2154-2169
Originally published October 27, 2003

Jump to

Chronic kidney disease1 (CKD) is a worldwide public health problem. In the United States, there is a rising incidence and prevalence of kidney failure, with poor outcomes and high cost. The number of individuals with kidney failure treated by dialysis and transplantation exceeded 320 000 in 1998 and is expected to surpass 650 000 by 2010.1,2 There is an even higher prevalence of earlier stages of CKD (Table 1).1,3 Kidney failure requiring treatment with dialysis or transplantation is the most visible outcome of CKD. However, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is also frequently associated with CKD, which is important because individuals with CKD are more likely to die of CVD than to develop kidney failure,4 CVD in CKD is treatable and potentially preventable, and CKD appears to be a risk factor for CVD. In 1998, the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease in Chronic Renal Disease issued a report emphasizing the high risk of CVD in CKD.5 This report showed that there was a high prevalence of CVD in CKD and that mortality due to CVD was 10 to 30 times higher in dialysis patients than in the general population (Figure 1 and Table 2).6–18 The task force recommended that patients with CKD be considered in the “highest risk group” for subsequent CVD events and that treatment recommendations based on CVD risk stratification should take into account the highest-risk status of patients with CKD.

View this table:

TABLE 1. Stages of CKD

Figure1

Figure 1. Cardiovascular mortality defined by death due to arrhythmias, cardiomyopathy, cardiac arrest, myocardial infarction, atherosclerotic heart disease, and pulmonary edema in general population (GP; National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS] multiple cause of mortality data files International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision [ICD 9] codes 402, 404, 410 to 414, and 425 to 429, 1993) compared with kidney failure treated by dialysis or kidney transplant (United States Renal Data System [USRDS] special data request Health Care Financing Administration form 2746 Nos. 23, 26 to 29, and 31, 1994 to 1996). Data are stratified by age, race, and sex. CVD mortality is underestimated in kidney transplant recipients owing to incomplete ascertainment of cause of death. Reproduced and modified with permission from Foley et al.6

View this table:

TABLE 2. Approximate Prevalence of CVD in the General Population and CKD

The major goal of this statement is to review CKD as a risk factor for development of CVD. As background, we shall also review the definition of CKD and classification of stages of severity of CKD, the spectrum of CVD in CKD and differences from the general population, and risk factors for CVD in CKD.

Definition and Classification of Stages of Severity and Types of CKD

In 2002, the NKF published clinical practice guidelines on evaluation, classification, and risk stratification in CKD.3 In these guidelines, CKD is defined as either (1) kidney damage for ≥3 months, as confirmed by kidney biopsy or markers of kidney damage, with or without a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR), or (2) GFR <60 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 for ≥3 months, with or without kidney damage (Table 1).

Kidney damage is ascertained by either kidney biopsy or markers of kidney damage, such as proteinuria, abnormal urinary sediment, or abnormalities on imaging studies. The finding of proteinuria not only defines the presence of CKD but also has important implications for diagnosis of the type of kidney disease and is associated with a worse prognosis for both kidney disease progression and the development of CVD. Proteinuria is variously defined (Table 3).3,19–21 Measurement of albumin-to-creatinine ratio or total protein-to-creatinine ratio in untimed “spot” urine samples is recommended for assessment of proteinuria.3

View this table:

TABLE 3. Definitions of Proteinuria

GFR <60 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 is selected as the cutoff value for definition of CKD because it represents a reduction by more than half of the normal value of ≈125 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 in young men and women, and this level of GFR is associated with the onset of laboratory abnormalities characteristic of kidney failure, including increased prevalence and severity of several CVD risk factors. Estimation of GFR from serum creatinine and prediction equations including age, sex, race, and body size is recommended to avoid the misclassification of individuals on the basis of serum creatinine alone3,22–24 (Table 4 and NKF GFR calculator available at http://www.kidney.org/professionals/doqi/index.cfm).

View this table:

TABLE 4. Equations to Predict GFR Based on Serum Creatinine

Kidney failure is defined as GFR <15 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 or treatment by dialysis. Approximately 98% of patients beginning dialysis for CKD in the United States have an estimated GFR of <15 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2.25 This definition is not synonymous with end-stage renal disease, which is an administrative term in the United States signifying eligibility for coverage by Medicare for payment for dialysis and transplantation.

Among individuals with CKD, the stage of severity is based on the level of GFR (Table 1). The prevalence of kidney failure (≈300 000, or 0.1% of the US adult population) is considerably less than the prevalence of earlier stages of CKD (≈20 million, or 10.8% of the US adult population).

Diagnosis of CKD is traditionally based on pathology and etiology. A simplified classification, which we shall use in this article, emphasizes diseases in the native kidney, which can be broadly divided as diabetic and nondiabetic in origin, and kidney diseases in the transplant.3,26,27

Spectrum of CVD in CKD and Differences From the General Population

In this section, we consider arterial vascular disease and cardiomyopathy as the primary types of CVD (Table 4). In CKD, it is useful to consider 2 subtypes of arterial vascular disease, namely, atherosclerosis and large-vessel remodeling or arteriosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is an intimal disease characterized by the presence of plaques and occlusive lesions.28 There is a high prevalence of atherosclerosis in CKD.29,30 Atherosclerotic lesions in kidney failure are frequently calcified, as opposed to fibroatheromatous, and have increased media thickness compared with lesions in the general population.31 Surrogates of atherosclerosis include both intima-media thickness of the carotid wall that is detectable by ultrasound and inducible myocardial ischemia that is detectable by coronary stress tests. Electron-beam computed tomography is a sensitive method to detect vascular calcification but may not be an ideal method to detect atherosclerosis in CKD, because it is unable to distinguish between intimal calcifications of atherosclerosis and medial calcification that is common in CKD. Clinical presentations of atherosclerosis include ischemic heart disease, namely, angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death, which is common in CKD, and cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, or heart failure (Table 5).

View this table:

TABLE 5. Spectrum of CVD in CKD: Differences From the General Population

Stress imaging is an important modality for testing for myocardial ischemia. A recent meta-analysis reveals that stress imaging is of value in predicting CVD morbidity and mortality in kidney transplantation candidates treated by dialysis.32 It remains unknown, however, whether the diagnostic accuracy of these tests, as defined by a “gold standard” of angiographic obstructive coronary artery disease, is different from the general population. Furthermore, it remains unknown whether stress nuclear or stress echocardiographic testing is more accurate in patients with CKD.

Dialysis patients with ischemic heart disease may not necessarily have large-vessel coronary disease. In one study, up to 50% of nondiabetic dialysis patients with symptoms of myocardial ischemia did not have large-vessel coronary artery disease (defined as luminal narrowing of >50% of major coronary vessels).33 The authors hypothesized that the patients may have ischemia secondary to the combined effects of volume overload and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), which causes increased oxygen demand, and small-vessel coronary disease, which causes decreased oxygen supply. It needs to be acknowledged, however, that the latter study was performed in the pre-erythropoietin era, during which hemoglobin levels were lower, which also may have contributed to ischemia; therefore, the results may not be generalizable to current practice.

Patients with CKD also have a high prevalence of arteriosclerosis and remodeling of large arteries.28 Remodeling may be due either to pressure overload, which is distinguished by wall hypertrophy and an increased wall-to-lumen ratio, or flow overload, which is characterized by a proportional increase in arterial diameter and wall thickness. Remodeling often accompanies a reduction in arterial compliance, which can be detected through measurement of aortic pulse wave velocity and characteristic impedance.34,35 Noncompliant vessels may result in increased systolic blood pressure, increased pulse pressure, LVH, and decreased coronary perfusion. Both decreased aortic compliance35–37 and increased pulse pressure38 have been found to be independent risk factors for CVD in dialysis patients.

Patients with CKD also have a high prevalence of cardiomyopathy (Table 2).18 Hypertension and arteriosclerosis result in pressure overload and lead to concentric LVH (increased wall-to-lumen ratio), whereas anemia, fluid overload, and arteriovenous fistulas result in volume overload and primarily lead to left ventricular dilatation with LVH (a proportional increase in left ventricular mass and diameter). These structural abnormalities may lead to diastolic and systolic dysfunction and may be detectable by echocardiography. Clinical presentations of cardiomyopathy include heart failure and ischemic heart disease, even in the absence of arterial vascular disease.

Diagnosis of heart failure may be challenging in dialysis patients because salt and water retention may be treated by ultrafiltration during dialysis, often leaving other signs and symptoms, such as decreased blood pressure, fatigue, and anorexia, as the only clues to its presence. On the other hand, salt and water retention may reflect inadequate ultrafiltration rather than heart failure or a combination of both heart failure and inadequate ultrafiltration. Indeed, one of the major causes of inadequate ultrafiltration during dialysis is hypotension, which may be a manifestation of heart failure. Regardless of the cause, heart failure is a powerful risk factor for adverse outcomes in dialysis patients, which suggests that it is usually a manifestation of advanced CVD.39 Left ventricular mass index is dependent on volume status; therefore, there is a need for standardized assessments of left ventricular function in hemodialysis patients.40

CVD Risk Factors in CKD

In subjects with CKD, for the purposes of this discussion, we classify CVD risk factors as either “traditional” or “nontraditional” (Table 6),41 and we define traditional risk factors as those in the Framingham Heart Study that have been used to estimate the risk of developing symptomatic ischemic heart disease.42,43 Most of the traditional CVD risk factors, such as older age, diabetes mellitus, systolic hypertension, LVH, and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, are highly prevalent in CKD. The cardiovascular risk conferred by many traditional risk factors, such as diabetes,6 older age,2 and LVH,44 largely parallels the relationships described in the general population, although some important differences have been noted with regard to other risk factors. For example, U-shaped relationships exist between all-cause mortality and both blood pressure and cholesterol levels in dialysis patients (Figure 2).45–48 The increased risk at lower levels of blood pressure and cholesterol may reflect confounding from cardiomyopathy and malnutrition, respectively, although this has not been proved. In support of the latter, hypertension was a risk factor for the development of LVH, heart failure, and ischemic heart disease but not mortality in a Canadian cohort of dialysis patients.49

View this table:

TABLE 6. Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors in CKD

Figure2

Figure 2. Mortality vs systolic blood pressure in hemodialysis patients. Dialysis Clinic, Inc prevalent cohort (1992 to 1996; n=5433). Cox regression analysis including age, race, sex, and diagnosis as baseline covariates and predialysis (Pre) or postdialysis (Post) systolic blood pressure, albumin, and Kt/V as time-dependent covariates. Reproduced with permission from Zager et al.46

Several cross-sectional studies have suggested that the Framingham risk equation is insufficient to capture the extent of CVD risk in subjects with CKD.17,50,51 There are 2 interpretations for these findings. First, other factors (nontraditional risk factors) that are not included in Framingham risk equations may play an important role in promoting ischemic heart disease in subjects with CKD. Second, traditional risk factors may have a qualitatively and quantitatively different risk relationship with CVD in CKD compared with the general population. For example, individuals with CKD may have had a longer and more severe exposure to hypertension than subjects without CKD. In addition, subjects with CKD may have been treated for hypertension, and the Framingham risk equation does not take into account dose or years of treatment with antihypertensive medications.52

To define a nontraditional factor as a risk factor, all of the following conditions ideally should be met: (1) biological plausibility as to why the factor may promote CVD risk; (2) demonstration that the risk factor level increases with severity of kidney disease; (3) demonstration of an association between the risk factor and CVD in CKD in observational studies; and (4) demonstration in placebo-controlled clinical trials that treatment of the risk factor decreases CVD outcomes. Although conditions 1 and 2 are met for the most part when one considers the nontraditional risk factors listed in Table 6, there remain many gaps in the CKD literature regarding condition 3, and particularly condition 4. This is, therefore, an active area of research.

Several nontraditional factors, such as hyperhomocysteinemia, oxidant stress, dyslipidemia, and elevated inflammatory markers, are associated with atherosclerosis,53–60 and 2 recent reviews suggest that oxidant stress and inflammation may be the primary mediators or the “missing link” that explains the tremendous burden of CVD in CKD.61,62 Other factors such as anemia are associated with cardiomyopathy,9,63 whereas abnormal calcium and phosphorus metabolism is associated with vascular remodeling and development of noncompliant vessels.64

As mentioned above, although many of these putative risk factors are associated with increased risk for either all-cause mortality or CVD in various stages of CKD,56,57,65–68 for the most part, their causal relationship to CVD has not yet been proved in clinical trials. However, 3 important clinical trials include the following. The Normal Hematocrit Trial enrolled ≈1300 hemodialysis patients with ischemic heart disease or heart failure and randomized them to a predialysis hematocrit goal of either 30% or 42% with the use of erythropoietin.69 The higher hematocrit group had a higher (although not significantly) incidence of all-cause mortality and myocardial infarction, the primary end point. The Secondary Prevention with Antioxidants of Cardiovascular Disease in End-Stage Renal Disease (SPACE) Study randomized 196 hemodialysis patients with CVD to 800 U of vitamin E or placebo. The vitamin E group had a lower incidence of the primary end point, which was a composite of myocardial infarction (both fatal and nonfatal), ischemic stroke, peripheral vascular disease, and unstable angina.70 Finally, a recent controlled trial randomized 134 hemodialysis patients to either 600 mg of oral acetylcysteine (an antioxidant) twice per day or placebo.71 Those patients randomized to acetylcysteine had a lower incidence of the primary end point, which was a composite of fatal and nonfatal myocardial infarction, CVD death, need for coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery, ischemic stroke, and peripheral vascular disease manifested by either amputation or need for angioplasty. Although the latter 2 studies should be interpreted with caution because they were small and are not consistent with studies in the general population,72 it is important to recognize that dialysis patients have higher levels of oxidant stress and inflammation than the general population; therefore, the results are provocative and need to be followed up in larger trials.

CVD in Kidney Failure

CVD mortality is ≈10 to 30 times higher in patients treated by dialysis than in patients in the general population, despite stratification for sex, race, and the presence of diabetes.6 After stratification for age, CVD mortality remains ≈5-fold higher in dialysis patients than in the general population, even at the extremes of age (Figure 1). The high mortality rate is likely due to both a high case fatality rate and a high prevalence of CVD.

A high case fatality rate in dialysis patients has been observed after acute myocardial infarction and in patients with heart failure. Mortality 1 and 2 years after myocardial infarction was 59% and 73%, respectively, in dialysis patients (Figure 3),73 which is much higher than after acute myocardial infarction in the general population, even in subjects with comorbid conditions such as diabetes. For example, in the Worcester Heart Attack Study, approximately three fourths of diabetic men and two thirds of diabetic women discharged after an acute myocardial infarction were still alive 2 years later.74 In another study in dialysis patients, median survival was only 18 months after development of de novo heart failure, which is also far higher than observed in the general population.39

Figure3

Figure 3. Estimated cumulative mortality after acute myocardial infarction among patients on dialysis. Reproduced with permission from Herzog et al.73

The prevalences of atherosclerosis, heart failure, and LVH are extremely high in hemodialysis patients (Table 2).6 Approximately 40% of incident hemodialysis patients have clinical evidence of ischemic heart disease or heart failure. In addition, the prevalence of LVH in incident dialysis patients is high. In the Canadian Prospective Cohort Study of 433 incident dialysis patients, 74% had LVH at baseline, 44% had concentric LVH, 30% had hypertrophy with left ventricular dilatation, and 15% had systolic dysfunction.18

CVD in Kidney Transplant Recipients

CVD accounts for 35% to 50% of all-cause mortality in kidney transplant recipients,75–77 and CVD mortality rates are at least twice as high as in an age-stratified sample of the general population but significantly lower than an age-stratified dialysis population (Figure 1).6,77 The 2 most likely explanations for the reduced risk in kidney transplant recipients compared with dialysis patients are selection bias for those undergoing transplantation and removal of the hemodynamic and uremic abnormalities associated with dialysis in those who receive transplants.

CVD morbidity is also higher in transplant recipients than in the general population even in comparisons with population samples with similar age and sex distributions. The prevalence of coronary artery disease is ≈15%,10 the prevalence of LVH is 50% to 70%,11–15 and the incidence of CVD is at least 3 to 5 times that of the general population.6,10

Risk factors for CVD in kidney transplant recipients are multiple. They include traditional CVD risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and LVH, which are highly prevalent, and nontraditional risk factors associated with reduced GFR, such as hyperhomocysteinemia or factors unique to transplantation itself, including the direct effects of immunosuppression or rejection. It has recently been demonstrated that although the Framingham risk equation predicts ischemic heart disease after kidney transplantation, it tends to underestimate the risks, especially the risk associated with diabetes.78 The latter effect is probably due to more severe diabetic vascular disease in patients with diabetic kidney disease.

CVD in Diabetic Kidney Disease

In this section, we primarily focus on microalbuminuria, because it is the earliest sign of kidney disease in diabetes. We define all patients as being in the highest risk group for future CVD events because of the presence of diabetes.

Microalbuminuria is associated with an increased prevalence of CVD risk factors. Although blood pressure may be normal in subjects with type 1 diabetes, a pattern of “nondipping” at night is frequently observed by 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and may precede the development of microalbuminuria.79 Nondipping is a well-recognized CVD risk factor. Diabetic subjects with microalbuminuria also have an increased prevalence of dyslipidemia, poor glucose control, and increased blood pressure compared with diabetic patients without microalbuminuria.80,81

There is a strong association between microalbuminuria (albuminuria) and CVD in cross-sectional analysis. This relationship has been found for surrogate measures, such as carotid intima-media thickness82 and LVH,83,84 and different clinical presentations of CVD, such as coronary artery disease81,84 and peripheral vascular disease.85 The relationship between microalbuminuria (albuminuria) and clinical CVD has been confirmed in diverse racial/ethnic groups, including Koreans, American Indians, and Asian Indians.81,86,87 Although the relationship is present in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, the relationship is generally stronger in type 2 diabetes because of the older age of individuals with this disease.

Longitudinal studies also document that microalbuminuria is an adverse prognostic indicator for clinical CVD outcomes and all-cause mortality in subjects with diabetes (Table 7).80,84,88–97 For example, in the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study (subjects with vascular disease or diabetes plus another traditional risk factor at baseline), those with microalbuminuria and diabetes had a 1.97-fold (95% confidence interval 1.68 to 2.31) and 2.15-fold (95% confidence interval 1.78 to 2.60) increased risk for a composite outcome of myocardial infarction, stroke, or CVD death, as well as all-cause mortality, respectively, compared with subjects with diabetes without microalbuminuria.80 A recent pooled analysis of type 2 diabetes in 11 cohort studies (2138 patients followed up for a mean of 6.4 years) showed that microalbuminuria was associated with an adjusted overall odds ratio for all-cause mortality of 2.4 (95% confidence interval 1.8 to 3.1) and for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality of 2.0 (95% confidence interval 1.4 to 2.7).90

View this table:

TABLE 7. Microalbuminuria as a Risk Factor for CVD Outcomes in Subjects With Diabetes

There are several potential explanations for why the presence of microalbuminuria may be a risk factor for outcomes in diabetes. First, as discussed above, subjects with microalbuminuria have a higher prevalence of traditional risk factors than diabetic subjects without microalbuminuria. However, even after adjustment for other risk factors, the presence of microalbuminuria remains an adverse prognostic indicator (Table 7). Second, microalbuminuria may reflect generalized endothelial dysfunction and increased vascular permeability or abnormalities in the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems.98,99 Third, microalbuminuria may be associated with inflammatory markers.100 Fourth, microalbuminuria may denote the greater severity of end organ damage. Therefore, even if one adjusts for the presence of clinical CVD, the subject with microalbuminuria likely has more advanced disease.

CVD in Nondiabetic Kidney Disease

In this section, we focus on proteinuria and reduced GFR as manifestations of CKD. We consider proteinuria rather than microalbuminuria alone because studies have evaluated microalbuminuria, albuminuria, dipstick proteinuria, or nephrotic range proteinuria. Nephrotic syndrome in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals is associated with a number of disorders that have been implicated in CVD, such as extreme dyslipidemia and hypercoagulability, and is reviewed elsewhere.101,102 The goal of this review is to highlight the importance of lower levels of proteinuria.

We define a highest-risk population as one that is selected for already having CVD, other vascular disease, surrogates of CVD (such as LVH), or diabetes. An intermediate-risk population is one that is selected for having a traditional risk factor for CVD, such as increased age or hypertension. A low-risk population was defined as a community study.

Proteinuria

As in subjects with diabetes, nondiabetic persons with microalbuminuria have a higher prevalence of CVD risk factors (including dyslipidemia, increased blood pressure by 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring, heavier body size, insulin resistance, and a history of smoking) than subjects without microalbuminuria.103–105 There is a strong association between microalbuminuria and CVD in cross-sectional analysis. For example, microalbuminuria is associated with surrogates of CVD, such as increased intima-media thickness of the carotid artery in hypertensive subjects,106 more frequent concentric LVH in hypertensive men,104 abnormal left ventricular geometry and mass in subjects with hypertension and LVH,107,108 and electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischemia.109 Subjects with microalbuminuria also have a higher prevalence of clinical CVD than those without microalbuminuria.105

As in subjects with diabetic kidney disease, the presence of proteinuria in nondiabetic individuals is, for the most part, independently associated with an increased risk for CVD events in longitudinal studies (Table 8).80,88,93,110–124 Microalbuminuria in nondiabetic subjects in the HOPE study was associated with a 61% increased risk of the composite end point of stroke, myocardial infarction, or CVD death and a 2-fold increase in risk for all-cause mortality.80 In low-risk populations, however, the results have been less consistent. For example, in the Framingham Heart Study, the relative risk for CVD death or all-cause mortality for dipstick-positive proteinuria in women was similar to that in the HOPE study, but there was no significant independent association between dipstick-positive proteinuria and these outcomes in men.110 Conversely, in the Prevention of Renal and Vascular End Stage Disease (PREVEND) Study, a community study in the Netherlands, a doubling of urine albumin concentration was associated with a 29% increase in relative risk for CVD mortality.116 As in diabetic kidney disease, the presence of microalbuminuria in nondiabetic individuals may reflect generalized endothelial dysfunction125–129 or abnormalities of the fibrinolytic and coagulation pathways, may be a marker of inflammatory status,130 or may denote the greater severity of the target end-organ damage.

View this table:

TABLE 8. Proteinuria as a Risk Factor for CVD Outcomes in Patients Without Diabetes

Reduced GFR

Reduced GFR is associated with a high prevalence of CVD risk factors and a higher prevalence of CVD surrogates and clinical CVD. For example, several studies across a broad spectrum of populations, such as the HOPE study, the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) Study, the Framingham and Framingham Offspring Studies, and the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) Study, have shown that levels of systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol and the percentage of subjects with low HDL cholesterol are greater in subjects with decreased GFR. In addition, the percentages of subjects with diabetes, electrocardiographic LVH, ischemic heart disease, and heart failure are higher in those with decreased GFR.131–135 More recently, it has been demonstrated that the level of kidney function is also associated with the extent of demonstrable angiographic coronary disease. For example, in women with chest pain who undergo angiography, an elevated creatinine of 1.2 to 1.9 mg/dL is an independent predictor of significant angiographic coronary disease, as defined by a luminal narrowing of 50%.136

The prevalence of LVH is also inversely related to the level of GFR. In one study, the prevalence of LVH, as measured by echocardiography, was 45%, 31%, and 27% in patients with creatinine clearance of <25, 25 to 50, and >50 mL/min, respectively.9 These percentages contrast sharply with the <20% prevalence of LVH in similar-aged patients in the general population.8

Reduced GFR is also associated with clinical CVD outcomes in prospective studies. It is important initially to consider the effect of reduced GFR on CVD outcomes without adjustment for other risk factors for 2 reasons. First, decreased GFR may be associated with other CVD risk factors and therefore may be useful for risk stratification in and of itself. Second, the adjusted analyses may inappropriately reduce the association between level of GFR and outcomes. That is, reduced GFR may result in more severe hypertension and dyslipidemia, and therefore one may overcorrect for effects if factors in the causal pathway of lower GFR to CVD are included in statistical adjustments. Figure 4 demonstrates the difference in the probability of developing CVD over 3 years by level of GFR with and without adjustment for other CVD risk factors in the CHS.137 Without adjustment for other risk factors, a GFR of 30 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 is associated with a CVD risk of 40%, compared with 15% associated with a GFR of 130 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2. After adjustment for other CVD risk factors, a GFR of 30 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 is associated with a CVD risk of 22%, compared with 15% associated with a GFR of 130 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2. The interpretation of this finding is that although much of the risk of CKD is due to its association with other CVD risk factors, the presence of CKD in and of itself remains an important independent risk factor for CVD outcomes.

Figure4

Figure 4. Smoothed 3-year predicted probability (Pred. Prob.) of developing CVD by level of GFR in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Unadjusted curve shows risk incorporating each individual’s value for other covariates. Adjusted curve shows average risk in population if everyone had GFR value shown on x-axis. Linear model includes GFR as continuous variable in Cox regression, whereas cubic spline includes cubic transition between linear segments with knots (at 0.05, 0.275, 0.5, 0.725, 0.95 quantiles of GFR) corresponding to GFR values of 45.3, 64.0, 76.2, 88.5, and 107.3 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2, respectively. Tick marks along the x-axis indicate GFR values for individual participants with events (marks form solid bar in GFR regions with many events). Lower GFR cutoff of 30 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 was chosen because only 37 subjects had GFR values between 15 and 30 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2; therefore, data were less precise in latter range. Reproduced and modified with permission from Manjunath et al.137

Decreased GFR has consistently been found to be an independent risk factor for CVD outcomes and all-cause mortality in the highest-risk populations (Table 9⇓).* This is true in subjects with vascular disease or diabetes plus another CVD risk factor, after coronary artery bypass, after cardiac valve surgery, after myocardial infarction, in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions, in patients with unstable coronary syndromes, in patients presenting to the emergency ward with chest pain, and in patients with heart failure.† Furthermore, it appears that this increase in risk is present with even mild reduction in kidney function.174,177,178

View this table:

TABLE 9. Decreased GFR as a Risk Factor for CVD Outcomes

View this table:

TABLE 9. Continued

In high-risk populations, most but not all studies have suggested that decreased GFR is an independent risk factor for outcomes. This is true in the elderly, in whom even mild reductions of kidney function are associated with worse outcomes,137 in studies of subjects with hypertension,4 in studies of populations with a higher than normal prevalence of diabetes,165 and among older patients undergoing general surgery.169 In the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), the baseline creatinine level was not independently associated with CVD outcomes or all-cause mortality. However, an increase in follow-up serum creatinine level at 6 years did predict adverse CVD outcomes.167 The authors postulated that the lack of association with baseline serum creatinine may have been due to a narrow range of serum creatinine levels at baseline.

In low-risk populations or community studies, the relationship between the level of kidney function and outcomes has not been as clear. In both the Framingham Study and the first National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I), the level of kidney function was not an independent risk factor for CVD outcomes,131,170 whereas in the ARIC Study and NHANES II, it was a risk factor for both CVD and all-cause mortality.119,133 Potential reasons for the discrepancies in the studies include differences in the study populations (for example, blacks were part of the ARIC study but not the Framingham studies), alternate measures to ascertain level of kidney function (serum creatinine is less sensitive than estimated GFR to detect small differences in level of kidney function and therefore may be less likely to detect an association in a low-risk population), and potential type II errors due to lower CVD event rates in community studies.179 Either way, it appears that the presence of reduced GFR is either not a risk factor or at most is a modest independent risk factor for CVD outcomes in low-risk populations.

There are a number of possible explanations for the independent association of reduced GFR and CVD outcomes. First, a reduced GFR may be associated with an increased level of nontraditional CVD risk factors that frequently are not assessed in many studies.180,181 Second, reduced GFR may be a marker of undiagnosed vascular disease or alternatively a marker for the severity of diagnosed vascular disease, especially in high- or highest-risk populations. Third, reduced GFR may be a measure of residual confounding from traditional CVD risk factors. For example, subjects with reduced GFR may have had more severe hypertension or dyslipidemia and therefore have suffered more vascular damage secondary to hypertension or dyslipidemia. Fourth, recent studies have suggested that subjects with reduced GFR are less likely to receive medications or therapies such as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, β-blockers, aspirin, platelet inhibitors, thrombolytics, or percutaneous intervention than patients with preserved GFR. Perhaps as important was the fact that in the same studies, patients with reduced GFR who did receive the above interventions obtained similar benefit as patients with preserved GFR.140,148,161,173,182,183 Finally, decreased GFR itself may be a risk factor for progression of ventricular remodeling and cardiac dysfunction.

The results in Tables 7⇑⇑ through 9 may be limited for the following reasons. First, negative results may not have been submitted or published, resulting in a publication bias. Second, we did not perform a systematic review to locate all studies for which the primary goal was the evaluation of the relationship between either proteinuria (albuminuria) or reduced GFR and CVD outcomes. Third, there is a possibility that other studies of which we are not aware evaluated risk factors for CVD outcomes and included proteinuria (microalbuminuria) or level of kidney function in the multivariable analyses. Finally, we have not included studies for which the primary goal was the evaluation of risk factors for acute kidney failure—for example, after receiving intravenous contrast agents. These studies may be relevant, because reduced GFR is a strong risk factor for acute kidney failure and through this mechanism may lead to an increase in CVD events and all-cause mortality.184

Unanswered Questions

There remain many unanswered questions. A few, alluded to above, include the following: Are all the potential nontraditional risk factors defined in Table 6 indeed risk factors for CVD in all stages of CKD? Is a mild decrease in GFR associated with an increased CVD risk in low-risk populations, and if so, through what mechanism? Will therapy designed specifically to reduce albuminuria/proteinuria decrease CVD events? What are the cellular mechanisms of left ventricular remodeling in CKD, and how may treatment modalities alter this process? We also expand on 2 additional questions.

First, is the presence of CKD more of a risk factor for heart failure or ischemic heart disease outcomes? There is debate in the literature whether the presence of CKD leads primarily to accelerated atherosclerosis with manifestations of ischemic heart disease or cardiomyopathy manifested primarily as heart failure. A recent study in kidney transplantation patients has shown that the incidence of de novo heart failure was considerably higher in kidney transplant recipients than in the Framingham cohort, whereas the incidence of ischemic heart disease was not.185 However, because most studies have not clearly distinguished between the risk of heart failure versus the risk of ischemic heart disease, this issue remains unresolved and needs additional study.

Second, is there a threshold level of GFR below which an increased risk for CVD begins or where the risk for CVD increases in a nonlinear fashion? Many studies have suggested that the relative risk for CVD increases more rapidly below a GFR of ≈60 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2133,137,139,148,159; however, formal statistical analyses have not had sufficient power to prove this point.133,137 In theory, a threshold level of GFR of ≈60 mL · min−1 per 1.73 m2 may make sense, because the prevalence of many nontraditional risk factors, such as anemia and abnormalities of calcium and phosphorus metabolism, increases as GFR decreases below this range.

Summary

There is a high prevalence of CVD in subjects with CKD. The presence of CKD, whether it is manifested by proteinuria (albuminuria) or reduced GFR, appears to be an independent risk factor for CVD outcomes, particularly in higher-risk populations. These findings are consistent with the NKF task force recommendation that patients with CKD should be considered in the highest-risk group for CVD events. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC-7) includes CKD as a “compelling” indication, justifying lower target blood pressure and treatment with specific antihypertensive agents.186 Similarly, the recently published “NKF-K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines on Managing Dyslipidemia in Chronic Kidney Disease” recommend that all patients with CKD be included in the highest-risk group, justifying a lower target low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level.53 By contrast, the third report of the Adult Treatment Panel of the National Cholesterol Education Program (ATP-III) does not include CKD in the list of high-risk conditions necessitating more aggressive management.187 We suggest that the National Cholesterol Education Program and other groups include CKD in the highest-risk group for recommendations for prevention, detection, and treatment of CVD risk factors. In addition, these findings reinforce the recent recommendation from the NKF on the importance of early identification and treatment of CKD and its associated comorbid conditions. We suggest that the routine evaluation of patients with CVD or those at high risk for CVD include measurement of spot urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio or total protein-to-creatinine ratio and estimation of GFR by serum creatinine and prediction equations. Finally, there is an urgent need for additional randomized controlled studies to evaluate potential treatments of CVD in CKD.

Footnotes

  • The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest.

  • This statement was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee in June 2003. A single reprint is available by calling 800-242-8721 (US only) or writing the American Heart Association, Public Information, 7272 Greenville Ave, Dallas, TX 75231-4596. Ask for reprint No. 71-0258. To purchase additional reprints: up to 999 copies, call 800-611-6083 (US only) or fax 413-665-2671; 1000 or more copies, call 214-706-1466, fax 214-691-6342, or e-mail pubauth@heart.org. To make photocopies for personal or educational use, call the Copyright Clearance Center, 978-750-8400.

  • This statement is being copublished in the November 2003 issue of Hypertension.

  • ↵*References 4, 111, 119, 131–134, 137–177.

  • ↵†References 132, 135, 139, 140, 144–146, 149, 155, 161, 175, 176.

References

  1. ↵
    National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. US Renal Data System, USRDS 1998 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 1998. Available at: http://www.usrds.org/adr_1998.htm. Accessed September 12, 2003.
  2. ↵
    National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. US Renal Data System, USRDS 2000 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2000. Available at: http://www.usrds.org/atlas_2000.htm. Accessed September 12, 2003.
  3. ↵
    National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39 (2 suppl 1): S1–S266.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  4. ↵
    Shulman NB, Ford CE, Hall WD, et al. Prognostic value of serum creatinine and effect of treatment of hypertension on renal function: results from the hypertension detection and follow-up program. The Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program Cooperative Group. Hypertension. 1989; 13 (5 suppl): I80–I93.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  5. ↵
    Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, et al. Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: what do we know? What do we need to learn? Where do we go from here? National Kidney Foundation Task Force on Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 32: 853–906.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  6. ↵
    Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 32: S112–S119.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  7. ↵
    American Heart Association. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2003 Update. Dallas, Tex: American Heart Association; 2002. Available at: http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3000090. Accessed September 12, 2003.
  8. ↵
    Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, et al. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322: 1561–1566.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  9. ↵
    Levin A, Singer J, Thompson CR, et al. Prevalent left ventricular hypertrophy in the predialysis population: identifying opportunities for intervention. Am J Kidney Dis. 1996; 27: 347–354.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  10. ↵
    Kasiske BL. Risk factors for accelerated atherosclerosis in renal transplant recipients. Am J Med. 1988; 84: 985–992.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  11. ↵
    Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Foley RN, et al. Impact of renal transplantation on uremic cardiomyopathy. Transplantation. 1995; 60: 908–914.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  12. ↵
    Hernandez D, Lacalzada J, Rufino M, et al. Prediction of left ventricular mass changes after renal transplantation by polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene. Kidney Int. 1997; 51: 1205–1211.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  13. ↵
    Peteiro J, Alvarez N, Calvino R, et al. Changes in left ventricular mass and filling after renal transplantation are related to changes in blood pressure: an echocardiographic and pulsed Doppler study. Cardiology. 1994; 85: 273–283.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  14. ↵
    Huting J. Course of left ventricular hypertrophy and function in end-stage renal disease after renal transplantation. Am J Cardiol. 1992; 70: 1481–1484.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  15. ↵
    Himelman RB, Landzberg JS, Simonson JS, et al. Cardiac consequences of renal transplantation: changes in left ventricular morphology and function. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988; 12: 915–923.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  16. ↵
    National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. US Renal Data System, USRDS 1997 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 1997. Available at: http://www.usrds.org/adr_1997.htm. Accessed September 15, 2003.
  17. ↵
    Cheung AK, Sarnak MJ, Yan G, et al. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risks in chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2000; 58: 353–362.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  18. ↵
    Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney Int. 1995; 47: 186–192.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  19. ↵
    Warram JH, Gearin G, Laffel L, et al. Effect of duration of type I diabetes on the prevalence of stages of diabetic nephropathy defined by urinary albumin/creatinine ratio. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996; 7: 930–937.
    OpenUrlAbstract
  20. ↵
    American Diabetes Association. Clinical practice recommendations 2001. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24 (suppl 1): S1–S133.[See pp S69–S72.]
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  21. ↵
    Keane WF, Eknoyan G. Proteinuria, albuminuria, risk assessment, detection, elimination (PARADE): a position paper of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999; 33: 1004–1010.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  22. ↵
    Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1999; 130: 461–470.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  23. ↵
    Levey AS, Greene T, Kusek JW, et al. A simplified equation to predict glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000; 11: 155A.
    OpenUrl
  24. ↵
    Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976; 16: 31–41.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  25. ↵
    Obrador GT, Arora P, Kausz AT, et al. Level of renal function at the initiation of dialysis in the U.S. end-stage renal disease population. Kidney Int. 1999; 56: 2227–2235.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  26. ↵
    Levey AS. Clinical practice: non-diabetic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347: 1505–1511.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  27. ↵
    Remuzzi G, Schieppatti A, Ruggenenti P. Clinical practice: nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 1145–1151.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  28. ↵
    London GM, Marchais SJ, Guerin AP, et al. Arterial structure and function in end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002; 17: 1713–1724.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  29. ↵
    Tonelli M, Bohm C, Pandeya S, et al. Cardiac risk factors and use of cardioprotective medications in patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 37: 484–489.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  30. ↵
    Jungers P, Massy ZA, Khoa TN, et al. Incidence and risk factors of atherosclerotic cardiovascular accidents in predialysis chronic renal failure patients: a prospective study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1997; 12: 2597–2602.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  31. ↵
    Schwarz U, Buzello M, Ritz E, et al. Morphology of coronary atherosclerotic lesions in patients with end-stage renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000; 15: 218–223.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  32. ↵
    Rabbat CG, Treleaven DJ, Russell JD, et al. Prognostic value of myocardial perfusion studies in patients with end stage renal disease assessed for kidney or kidney-pancreas transplantation: a meta-analysis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003; 14: 431–439.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  33. ↵
    Rostand SG, Kirk KA, Rutsky EA. Dialysis-associated ischemic heart disease: insights from coronary angiography. Kidney Int. 1984; 25: 653–659.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  34. ↵
    Mitchell GF, Izzo JL, Lacourciere Y, et al. Omapatrilat reduces pulse pressure and proximal aortic stiffness in patients with systolic hypertension: results of the conduit hemodynamics of omapatrilat international research study. Circulation. 2002; 105: 2955–2961.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  35. ↵
    Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, et al. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation. 1999; 99: 2434–2439.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  36. ↵
    Blacher J, Pannier B, Guerin AP, et al. Carotid arterial stiffness as a predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in end-stage renal disease. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 570–574.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  37. ↵
    Guerin AP, Blacher J, Pannier B, et al. Impact of aortic stiffness attenuation on survival of patients in end-stage renal failure. Circulation. 2001; 103: 987–992.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  38. ↵
    Klassen PS, Lowrie EG, Reddan DN, et al. Association between pulse pressure and mortality in patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. JAMA. 2002; 287: 1548–1555.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  39. ↵
    Harnett JD, Foley RN, Kent GM, et al. Congestive heart failure in dialysis patients: prevalence, incidence, prognosis and risk factors. Kidney Int. 1995; 47: 884–890.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  40. ↵
    Harnett JD, Murphy B, Collingwood P, et al. The reliability and validity of echocardiographic measurement of left ventricular mass index in hemodialysis patients. Nephron. 1993; 65: 212–214.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  41. ↵
    Sarnak MJ, Levey AS. Cardiovascular disease and chronic renal disease: a new paradigm. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 35 (4 suppl 1): S117–S131.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  42. ↵
    Anderson KM, Wilson PW, Odell PM, et al. An updated coronary risk profile: a statement for health professionals. Circulation. 1991; 83: 356–362.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  43. ↵
    Wilson PWF, D’Agostino RB, Levy D, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998; 97: 1837–1847.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  44. ↵
    Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. The prognostic importance of left ventricular geometry in uremic cardiomyopathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1995; 5: 2024–2031.
    OpenUrlAbstract
  45. ↵
    Port FK, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Wolfe RA, et al. Predialysis blood pressure and mortality risk in a national sample of maintenance hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999; 33: 507–517.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  46. ↵
    Zager PG, Nikolic J, Brown RH, et al. “U” curve association of blood pressure and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Medical Directors of Dialysis Clinic, Inc. Kidney Int. 1998; 54: 561–569.Erratum in: Kidney Int. 1998; 54: 1417.
    OpenUrl
  47. ↵
    Iseki K, Yamazato M, Tozawa M, et al. Hypocholesterolemia is a significant predictor of death in a cohort of chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: 1887–1893.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  48. ↵
    Lowrie EG, Lew NL. Death risk in hemodialysis patients: the predictive value of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rate differences between facilities. Am J Kidney Dis. 1990; 15: 458–482.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  49. ↵
    Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. Impact of hypertension on cardiomyopathy, morbidity and mortality in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 1996; 49: 1379–1385.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  50. ↵
    Longenecker JC, Coresh J, Powe NR, et al. Traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in dialysis patients compared with the general population: the CHOICE Study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: 1918–1927.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  51. ↵
    Sarnak MJ, Coronado BE, Greene T, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic renal insufficiency. Clin Nephrol. 2002; 57: 327–335.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  52. ↵
    Uhlig K, Levey AS, Sarnak MJ. Traditional cardiac risk factors in individuals with chronic kidney disease. Semin Dial. 2003; 16: 118–127.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  53. ↵
    National Kidney Foundation K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines on managing dyslipidemias in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003; 41 (suppl 3): S1–S77.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  54. ↵
    Boaz M, Matas Z, Biro A, et al. Serum malondialdehyde and prevalent cardiovascular disease in hemodialysis. Kidney Int. 1999; 56: 1078–1083.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  55. ↵
    Bostom AG, Shemin D, Verhouf P, et al. Elevated fasting total plasma homocysteine levels and cardiovascular disease outcomes in maintenance dialysis patients: a prospective study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997; 17: 2554–2558.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  56. ↵
    Mallamaci F, Zoccali C, Tripepi G, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia predicts cardiovascular outcomes in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: 609–614.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  57. ↵
    Zimmerman J, Herrlinger S, Pruy A, et al. Inflammation enhances cardiovascular risk and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 1999; 55: 648–658.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  58. ↵
    Wahn F, Daniel V, Kronenberg F, et al. Impact of apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes on long-term renal transplant survival. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001; 12: 1052–1058.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  59. ↵
    Longenecker JC, Klag MJ, Marcovina SM, et al. Small apolipoprotein(a) size predicts mortality in end-stage renal disease: the CHOICE study. Circulation. 2002; 106: 2812–2818.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  60. ↵
    Kronenberg F, Neyer U, Lhotta K, et al. The low molecular weight apo(a) phenotype is an independent predictor for coronary artery disease in hemodialysis patients: a prospective follow-up. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999; 10: 1027–1036.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  61. ↵
    Himmelfarb J, Stenvinkel P, Ikizler TA, et al. The elephant in uremia: oxidant stress as a unifying concept of cardiovascular disease in uremia. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 1524–1538.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  62. ↵
    Arici M, Walls J. End-stage renal disease, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular mortality: is C-reactive protein the missing link? Kidney Int. 2001; 59: 407–414.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  63. ↵
    Levin A, Thompson CR, Ethier J, et al. Left ventricular mass index increase in early renal disease: impact of decline in hemoglobin. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999; 34: 125–134.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  64. ↵
    Guerin AP, London GM, Marchais SJ, et al. Arterial stiffening and vascular calcifications in end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000; 15: 1014–1021.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  65. ↵
    Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, et al. Association of serum phosphorous and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 31: 607–617.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  66. ↵
    Collins AJ. Influence of target hemoglobin in dialysis patients on morbidity and mortality. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: S44–S48.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  67. ↵
    Yeun JY, Levine RA, Mantadilok V, et al. C-reactive protein predicts all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 35: 469–476.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  68. ↵
    Ma JZ, Ebben J, Xia H, et al. Hematocrit level and associated mortality in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999; 10: 610–619.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  69. ↵
    Besarab A, Bolton WK, Browne JK, et al. The effects of normal as compared with low hematocrit values in patients with cardiac disease who are receiving hemodialysis and epoetin. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339: 584–590.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  70. ↵
    Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, et al. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2000; 356: 1213–1218.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  71. ↵
    Tepel M, van der Giet M, Statz M, et al. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation. 2003; 107: 992–995.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  72. ↵
    Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 154–160.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  73. ↵
    Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Poor long-term survival after myocardial infarction among patients on long-term dialysis. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339: 799–805.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  74. ↵
    Donahue RP, Goldberg RJ, Chen Z, et al. The influence of sex and diabetes mellitus on survival following acute myocardial infarction: a community-wide perspective. J Clin Epidemiol. 1993; 46: 245–252.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  75. ↵
    Dimeny EM. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: S78–S84.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  76. ↵
    Ojo AO, Hanson JA, Wolfe RA, et al. Long-term survival in renal transplant recipients with graft function. Kidney Int. 2000; 57: 307–313.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  77. ↵
    Lindholm A, Albrechtsen D, Frodin L, et al. Ischemic heart disease—major cause of death and graft loss after renal transplantation in Scandinavia. Transplantation. 1995; 60: 451–457.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  78. ↵
    Kasiske BL, Chakkera HA, Roel J. Explained and unexplained ischemic heart disease risk after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000; 11: 1735–1743.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  79. ↵
    Lurbe E, Redon J, Kesani A, et al. Increase in nocturnal blood pressure and progression to microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347: 797–805.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  80. ↵
    Gerstein HC, Mann JF, Yi Q, et al. Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals. JAMA. 2001; 286: 421–426.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  81. ↵
    Lee KU, Park JY, Kim SW, et al. Prevalence and associated features of albuminuria in Koreans with NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1995; 18: 793–799.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  82. ↵
    Mykkanen L, Zaccaro DJ, O’Leary DH, et al. Microalbuminuria and carotid artery intima-media thickness in nondiabetic and NIDDM subjects: the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study (IRAS). Stroke. 1997; 28: 1710–1716.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  83. ↵
    Suzuki K, Kato K, Hanyu O, et al. Left ventricular mass index increases in proportion to the progression of diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2001; 54: 173–180.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  84. ↵
    Stephenson JM, Kenny S, Stevens LK, et al. Proteinuria and mortality in diabetes: the WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabet Med. 1995; 12: 149–155.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  85. ↵
    Schleiffer T, Holken H, Brass H. Morbidity in 565 type 2 diabetic patients according to stage of nephropathy. J Diabetes Complications. 1998; 12: 103–109.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  86. ↵
    Howard BV, Lee ET, Cowan LD, et al. Coronary heart disease prevalence and its relation to risk factors in American Indians: the Strong Heart study. Am J Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 254–268.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  87. ↵
    John L, Rao PS, Kanagasabapathy AS. Prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in non–insulin dependent diabetics. Indian J Med Res. 1991; 94: 24–29.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  88. ↵
    Agewall S, Wikstrand J, Ljungman S, et al. Usefulness of microalbuminuria in predicting cardiovascular mortality in treated hypertensive men with and without diabetes mellitus. Risk Factor Intervention Study Group. Am J Cardiol. 1997; 80: 164–169.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  89. ↵
    Gall MA, Borch-Johnsen K, Hougaard P, et al. Albuminuria and poor glycemic control predict mortality in NIDDM. Diabetes. 1995; 44: 1303–1309.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  90. ↵
    Dinneen SF, Gerstein HC. The association of microalbuminuria and mortality in non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a systematic overview of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1997; 157: 1413–1418.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  91. ↵
    Mogensen CE. Microalbuminuria predicts clinical proteinuria and early mortality in maturity-onset diabetes. N Engl J Med. 1984; 310: 356–360.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  92. ↵
    Messent JW, Elliott TG, Hill RD, et al. Prognostic significance of microalbuminuria in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a twenty-three year follow-up study. Kidney Int. 1992; 41: 836–839.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  93. ↵
    Miettinen H, Haffner SM, Lehto S, et al. Proteinuria predicts stroke and other atherosclerotic vascular disease events in nondiabetic and non–insulin-dependent diabetic subjects. Stroke. 1996; 27: 2033–2039.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  94. ↵
    Rossing P, Hougaard P, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. Predictors of mortality in insulin dependent diabetes: 10 year observational follow up study. BMJ. 1996; 313: 779–784.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  95. ↵
    Stehouwer CD, Gall MA, Twisk JW, et al. Increased urinary albumin excretion, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic low-grade inflammation in type 2 diabetes: progressive, interrelated, and independently associated with risk of death. Diabetes. 2002; 51: 1157–1165.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  96. ↵
    Uusitupa MI, Niskanen LK, Siitonen O, et al. Ten-year cardiovascular mortality in relation to risk factors and abnormalities in lipoprotein composition in type 2 diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. Diabetologia. 1993; 36: 1175–1184.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  97. ↵
    Valmadrid CT, Klein R, Moss SE, et al. The risk of cardiovascular disease mortality associated with microalbuminuria and gross proteinuria in persons with older-onset diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160: 1093–1100.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  98. ↵
    Stehouwer CD, Nauta JJ, Zeldenrust GC, et al. Urinary albumin excretion, cardiovascular disease, and endothelial dysfunction in non –insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet. 1992; 340: 319–323.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  99. ↵
    Stehouwer CD, Lambet J, Donker AJ, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and pathogenesis of diabetic angiopathy. Cardiovasc Res. 1997; 34: 55–68.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  100. ↵
    Festa A, D’Agostino R, Howard G, et al. Inflammation and microalbuminuria in nondiabetic and type 2 diabetic subjects: the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study. Kidney Int. 2000; 58: 1703–1710.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  101. ↵
    Orth SR, Ritz E. The nephrotic syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998; 338: 1202–1211.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  102. ↵
    Kasiske BL. Hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998; 32 (5 suppl 3): S142–S156.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  103. ↵
    Pontremoli R, Sofia A, Ravera M, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of microalbuminuria in essential hypertension: the MAGIC study. Microalbuminuria: a Genoa Investigation on Complications. Hypertension. 1997; 30: 1135–1143.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  104. ↵
    Dell’Omo G, Penno G, Giorgi D, et al. Association between high-normal albuminuria and risk factors for cardiovascular and renal disease in essential hypertensive men. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 40: 1–8.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  105. ↵
    Hillege HL, Janssen WM, Bak AA, et al. Microalbuminuria is common, also in a nondiabetic, nonhypertensive population, and an independent indicator of cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular morbidity. J Intern Med. 2001; 249: 519–526.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  106. ↵
    Bigazzi R, Bianchi S, Nenci R, et al. Increased thickness of the carotid artery in patients with essential hypertension and microalbuminuria. J Hum Hypertens. 1995; 9: 827–833.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  107. ↵
    Wachtell K, Palmieri V, Olsen MH, et al. Urine albumin/creatinine ratio and echocardiographic left ventricular structure and function in hypertensive patients with electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy: the LIFE study. Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction. Am Heart J. 2002; 143: 319–326.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  108. ↵
    Wachtell K, Olsen MH, Dahlof B, et al. Microalbuminuria in hypertensive patients with electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy: the LIFE study. J Hypertens. 2002; 20: 405–412.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  109. ↵
    Diercks GF, Hillege HL, van Boven A, et al. Relation between albumin in the urine and electrocardiographic markers of myocardial ischemia in patients without diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol. 2001; 88: 771–774.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  110. ↵
    Culleton BF, Larson MG, Parfrey PS, et al. Proteinuria as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and mortality in older people: a prospective study. Am J Med. 2000; 109: 1–8.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  111. ↵
    De Leeuw PW, Thijs L, Birkenhager WH, et al. Prognostic significance of renal function in elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension: results from the Syst-Eur trial. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: 2213–2222.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  112. ↵
    Diercks GF, Hillege HL, van Boven AJ, et al. Microalbuminuria modifies the mortality risk associated with electrocardiographic ST-T segment changes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 40: 1401–1407.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  113. ↵
    Damsgaard EM, Froland A, Jorgensen OD, et al. Microalbuminuria as predictor of increased mortality in elderly people. BMJ. 1990; 300: 297–300.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  114. ↵
    Grimm RJ, Svendsen K, Kasiske B, et al. Proteinuria is a risk factor for mortality over 10 years of follow-up. MRFIT Research Group: Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Kidney Int. 1997; 63: S10–S14.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  115. ↵
    Ljungman S, Wikstrand J, Hartford M, et al. Urinary albumin excretion—a predictor of risk of cardiovascular disease: a prospective 10-year follow-up of middle-aged nondiabetic normal and hypertensive men. Am J Hypertens. 1996; 9: 770–778.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  116. ↵
    Hillege HL, Fidler V, Diercks GF, et al. Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in general population. Circulation. 2002; 106: 1777–1782.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  117. ↵
    Jager A, Kostense PJ, Ruhe HG, et al. Microalbuminuria and peripheral arterial disease are independent predictors of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, especially among hypertensive subjects: five-year follow-up of the Hoorn Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 617–624.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  118. ↵
    Kannel WB, Stampfer MJ, Castelli WP, et al. The prognostic significance of proteinuria: the Framingham study. Am Heart J. 1984; 108: 1347–1352.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  119. ↵
    Muntner P, He J, Hamm L, et al. Renal insufficiency and subsequent death resulting from cardiovascular disease in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: 745–753.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  120. ↵
    Kuusisto J, Mykkanen L, Pyorala K, et al. Hyperinsulinemic microalbuminuria: a new risk indicator for coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1995; 91: 831–837.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  121. ↵
    Roest M, Banga JD, Janssen WM, et al. Excessive urinary albumin levels are associated with future cardiovascular mortality in postmenopausal women. Circulation. 2001; 103: 3057–3061.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  122. ↵
    Ordonez JD, Hiatt RA, Killebrew EJ, et al. The increased risk of coronary artery disease associated with nephrotic syndrome. Kidney Int. 1993; 44: 638–642.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  123. ↵
    Wagner DK, Harris T, Madans JH. Proteinuria as a biomarker: risk of subsequent morbidity and mortality. Environ Res. 1994; 66: 160–172.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  124. ↵
    Yudkin JS, Forrest RD, Jackson CA. Microalbuminuria as predictor of vascular disease in non-diabetic subjects: Islington diabetes survey. Lancet. 1988; 2 (8610): 530–533.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  125. ↵
    Pedrinelli R, Dell’Omo G, Penno G, et al. Non-diabetic microalbuminuria, endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. Vasc Med. 2001; 6: 257–264.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  126. ↵
    Gosling P. Microalbuminuria: a marker of systemic disease. Br J Hosp Med. 1995; 54: 285–290.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  127. ↵
    Clausen P, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Jensen G, et al. Endothelial haemostatic factors are associated with progression of urinary albumin excretion in clinically healthy subjects: a 4-year prospective study. Clin Sci. 1999; 97: 37–43.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  128. ↵
    Jensen JS. Renal and systemic transvascular albumin leakage in severe atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995; 15: 1324–1329.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  129. ↵
    Clausen P, Jensen JS, Jensen G, et al. Elevated urinary albumin excretion is associated with impaired arterial dilatory capacity in clinically healthy subjects. Circulation. 2001; 103: 1869–1874.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  130. ↵
    Paisley KE, Beaman M, Tooke JE, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and inflammation in asymptomatic proteinuria. Kidney Int. 2003; 63: 624–633.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  131. ↵
    Culleton BF, Larson MG, Wilson PW, et al. Cardiovascular disease and mortality in a community-based cohort with mild renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 1999; 56: 2214–2219.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  132. ↵
    Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, et al. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: the HOPE randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2001; 134: 629–636.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  133. ↵
    Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Ibrahim H, et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 47–55.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  134. ↵
    Ruilope LM, Salvetti A, Jamerson K, et al. Renal function and intensive lowering of blood pressure in hypertensive participants of the hypertension optimal treatment (HOT) study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001; 12: 218–225.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  135. ↵
    Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Crump C, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk status in elderly persons with renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 997–1004.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  136. ↵
    Reis SE, Olson MB, Fried L, et al. Mild renal insufficiency is associated with angiographic coronary artery disease in women. Circulation. 2002; 105: 2826–2829.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  137. ↵
    Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Coresh J, et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor for cardiovascular outcomes in the elderly. Kidney Int. 2003; 63: 1121–1129.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  138. ↵
    Friedman PJ. Serum creatinine: an independent predictor of survival after stroke. J Intern Med. 1991; 229: 175–179.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  139. ↵
    McCullough PA, Soman SS, Shah SS, et al. Risks associated with renal dysfunction in patients in the coronary care unit. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 36: 679–684.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  140. ↵
    McCullough PA, Nowak RM, Foreback C, et al. Emergency evaluation of chest pain in patients with advanced kidney disease. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 2464–2468.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  141. ↵
    Soman SS, Sandberg KR, Borzak S, et al. The independent association of renal dysfunction and arrhythmias in critically ill patients. Chest. 2002; 122: 669–677.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  142. ↵
    Matts JP, Karnegis JN, Campos CT, et al. Serum creatinine as an independent predictor of coronary heart disease mortality in normotensive survivors of myocardial infarction. J Fam Pract. 1993; 36: 497–503.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  143. ↵
    Walsh CR, O’Donnell CJ, Camargo CA, et al. Elevated serum creatinine is associated with 1-year mortality after myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2002; 144: 1003–1011.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  144. ↵
    Rubenstein MH, Harrell LC, Sheynberg BV, et al. Are patients with renal failure good candidates for percutaneous coronary revascularization in the new device era. Circulation. 2000; 102: 2966–2972.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  145. ↵
    Hemmelgarn BR, Ghali WA, Quan H, et al. Poor long-term survival after coronary angiography in patients with renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 37: 64–72.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  146. ↵
    Beattie JN, Soman SS, Sandberg KR, et al. Determinants of mortality after myocardial infarction in patients with advanced renal dysfunction. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 37: 1191–1200.Erratum in: Am J Kidney Dis. 2001; 38: 701.
    OpenUrl
  147. ↵
    Shlipak MG, Simon JA, Grady D, et al. Renal insufficiency and cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women with coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 705–711.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  148. ↵
    Shlipak MG, Heidenreich PA, Noguchi H, et al. Association of renal insufficiency with treatment and outcomes after myocardial infarction in elderly patients. Ann Intern Med. 2002; 137: 555–562.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  149. ↵
    Dries DL, Exner DV, Domanski MJ, et al. The prognostic implications of renal insufficiency in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35: 681–689.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  150. ↵
    Kearney MT, Fox KA, Lee AJ, et al. Predicting death due to progressive heart failure in patients with mild-to-moderate chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 40: 1801–1808.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  151. ↵
    Hillege HL, Girbes AR, de Kam PJ, et al. Renal function, neurohormonal activation, and survival in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 2000; 102: 203–210.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  152. ↵
    McClellan WM, Flanders WD, Langston RD, et al. Anemia and renal insufficiency are independent risk factors for death among patients with congestive heart failure admitted to community hospitals: a population-based study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: 1928–1936.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  153. ↵
    Mahon NG, Blackstone EH, Francis GS, et al. The prognostic value of estimated creatinine clearance alongside functional capacity in ambulatory patients with chronic congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 40: 1106–1113.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  154. ↵
    Szczech LA, Reddan DN, Owen WF, et al. Differential survival after coronary revascularization procedures among patients with renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 2001; 60: 292–299.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  155. ↵
    Szczech LA, Best PJ, Crowley E, et al. Outcomes of patients with chronic renal insufficiency in the bypass angioplasty revascularization investigation. Circulation. 2002; 105: 2253–2258.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  156. ↵
    Gruberg L, Weissman NJ, Waksman R, et al. Comparison of outcomes after percutaneous coronary revascularization with stents in patients with and without mild chronic renal insufficiency. Am J Cardiol. 2002; 89: 54–57.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  157. ↵
    Al Suwaidi J, Reddan DN, Williams K, et al. Prognostic implications of abnormalities in renal function in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2002; 106: 974–980.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  158. ↵
    Best PJ, Lennon R, Ting HH, et al. The impact of renal insufficiency on clinical outcomes in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 39: 1113–1119.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  159. ↵
    Beddhu S, Allen-Brady K, Cheung AK, et al. Impact of renal failure on the risk of myocardial infarction and death. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 1776–1783.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  160. ↵
    Januzzi JL, Snapinn SM, DiBattiste PM, et al. Benefits and safety of tirofiban among acute coronary syndrome patients with mild to moderate renal insufficiency: results from the platelet receptor inhibition in ischemic syndrome management in patients limited by unstable signs and symptoms (PRISM-PLUS) trial. Circulation. 2002; 105: 2361–2366.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  161. ↵
    Wright RS, Reeder GS, Herzog CA, et al. Acute myocardial infarction and renal dysfunction: a high-risk combination. Ann Intern Med. 2002; 137: 563–570.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  162. ↵
    Fried LP, Kronmal RA, Newman AB, et al. Risk factors for 5-year mortality in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. JAMA. 1998; 279: 585–592.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  163. ↵
    Manolio TA, Kronmal RA, Burke GL, et al. Short-term predictors of incident stroke in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke. 1996; 27: 1479–1486.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  164. ↵
    Gottdiener JS, Arnold AM, Aurigemma GP, et al. Predictors of congestive heart failure in the elderly: the Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35: 1628–1637.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  165. ↵
    Henry RM, Kostense PJ, Bos G, et al. Mild renal insufficiency is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality: the Hoorn study. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 1402–1407.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  166. ↵
    Schillaci G, Reboldi G, Verdecchia P. High-normal serum creatinine concentration is a predictor of cardiovascular risk in essential hypertension. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161: 886–891.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  167. ↵
    Flack JM, Neaton JD, Daniels B, et al. Ethnicity and renal disease: lessons from the multiple risk factor intervention trial and the treatment of mild hypertension study. Am J Kidney Dis. 1993; 21 (4 supp 1): 31–40.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  168. ↵
    Shaw RE, Anderson HV, Brindis RG, et al. Development of a risk adjustment mortality model using the American College of Cardiology–National Cardiovascular Data Registry (ACC-NCDR) experience: 1998–2000. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 39: 1104–1112.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  169. ↵
    O’Brien MM, Gonzales R, Shroyer AL, et al. Modest serum creatinine elevation affects adverse outcome after general surgery. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 585–592.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  170. ↵
    Garg AX, Clark WF, Haynes RB, et al. Moderate renal insufficiency and the risk of cardiovascular mortality: results from the NHANES I. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: 1486–1494.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  171. ↵
    Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Perry IJ. Serum creatinine concentration and risk of cardiovascular disease: a possible marker for increased risk of stroke. Stroke. 1997; 28: 557–563.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  172. ↵
    Gruberg L, Weissman NJ, Pichard AD, et al. Impact of renal function on morbidity and mortality after percutaneous aortocoronary saphenous vein graft intervention. Am Heart J. 2003; 145: 529–534.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  173. ↵
    Freeman RV, Mehta RH, Al Badr W, et al. Influence of concurrent renal dysfunction on outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes and implications of the use of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 718–724.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  174. ↵
    Wison S, Foo K, Cunningham J, et al. Renal function and risk stratification in acute coronary syndromes. Am J Cardiol. 2003; 91: 1051–1054.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  175. ↵
    Anderson RJ, O’Brien M, MaWhinney S, et al. Mild renal failure is associated with adverse outcome after cardiac valve surgery. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 35: 1127–1134.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  176. ↵
    Anderson RJ, O’Brien M, MaWhinney S, et al. Renal failure predisposes patients to adverse outcome after coronary artery bypass surgery: VA Cooperative Study #5. Kidney Int. 1999; 55: 1057–1062.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  177. ↵
    Reinecke H, Trey T, Matzkies F, et al. Grade of chronic renal failure, and acute and long term outcome after percutaneous coronary interventions. Kidney Int. 2003; 63: 696–701.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  178. ↵
    Rubenstein MH, Sheynberg BV, Harrell LC, et al. Effectiveness of and adverse events after percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with mild versus severe renal failure. Am J Cardiol. 2001; 87: 856–860.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  179. ↵
    Reddan DN, Szczech LA. Renal insufficiency and the risk of cardiovascular mortality. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 1474–1475.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  180. ↵
    Arnadottir M, Hultberg B, Nilsson-Ehle P, et al. The effect of reduced glomerular filtration rate on plasma total homocysteine concentration. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1996; 56: 41–46.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  181. ↵
    Shlipak MG, Fried LF, Crump C, et al. Elevations of inflammatory and procoagulant biomarkers in elderly persons with renal insufficiency. Circulation. 2003; 107: 87–92.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  182. ↵
    McCullough PA, Sandberg KR, Borzak S, et al. Benefits of aspirin and beta-blockade after myocardial infarction in patients with chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J. 2002; 144: 226–232.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  183. ↵
    Reddan DN, O’Shea JC, Sarembock IJ, et al. Treatment effects of eptifibatide in planned coronary stent implantation in patients with chronic kidney disease (ESPRIT trial). Am J Cardiol. 2003; 91: 17–21.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  184. ↵
    McCullough PA, Wolyn R, Rocher LL, et al. Acute renal failure after coronary intervention: incidence, risk factors, and relationship to mortality. Am J Med. 1997; 103: 368–375.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  185. ↵
    Rigatto C, Parfrey P, Foley R, et al. Congestive heart failure in renal transplant recipients: risk factors, outcomes, and relationship with ischemic heart disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002; 13: 1084–1090.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  186. ↵
    Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003; 289: 2560–2572.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  187. ↵
    Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001; 285: 2486–2497.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
View Abstract

This Issue

Circulation
October 28, 2003, Volume 108, Issue 17

Jump to

Article Tools

Share this Article

  • Email
  • Kidney Disease as a Risk Factor for Development of Cardiovascular Disease
    Mark J. Sarnak, Andrew S. Levey, Anton C. Schoolwerth, Josef Coresh, Bruce Culleton, L. Lee Hamm, Peter A. McCullough, Bertram L. Kasiske, Ellie Kelepouris, Michael J. Klag, Patrick Parfrey, Marc Pfeffer, Leopoldo Raij, David J. Spinosa and Peter W. Wilson
    Circulation. 2003;108:2154-2169, originally published October 27, 2003
    https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000095676.90936.80
    Permalink:
    del.icio.us logo Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo CiteULike logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo

Related Articles

Cited By...

Subjects