(Circulation. 1999;99:1471-1476.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Relation of Weight and Rate of Increase in Weight During Childhood and Adolescence to Body Size, Blood Pressure, Fasting Insulin, and Lipids in Young Adults
The Minneapolis Children's Blood Pressure Study
From the Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School (A.R.S.), and Division of Epidemiology, University of Minnesota School of Public Health (D.R.J., R.J.P.), Minneapolis, Minn, and Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, SUNY, Buffalo, NY (R.P.D.).
Correspondence to Alan R. Sinaiko, MD, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, Box 491 Mayo, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail Sinai001{at}maroon.tc.umn.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Weight gain is of concern during early development because adult obesity and its cardiovascular consequences appear to have their origins during childhood. Insulin resistance is known to be related to obesity. Thus, weight gain beginning in childhood may influence the development of insulin-induced cardiovascular risk during adulthood.
Methods and Results—We monitored 679 individuals from 7.7±0.1 years of age with repeated measures of height, weight, and systolic blood pressure (SBP) until 23.6±0.2 years of age, when blood samples were obtained for measurements of insulin and lipids. Initial childhood weight, body mass index (BMI), and height were significantly correlated with young adult weight, BMI, and height and with fasting insulin, lipids, and SBP. The increases in weight and BMI but not height during childhood were significantly related to the young adult levels of insulin, lipids, and SBP.
Conclusions—These data suggest that weight gain in excess of normal growth during childhood is a determinant of adult cardiovascular risk. The finding in multiple linear regression analysis that weight gain during childhood rather than the childhood weight at 7.7 years of age is significantly related to young adult risk factors suggests that a reduction in weight gain could reduce subsequent levels of cardiovascular risk.
Key Words: insulin • obesity • lipids • blood pressure • children
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Introduction |
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Longitudinal studies in adult populations, such as the Framingham study,1 have shown that weight is strongly associated with cardiovascular risk.2 3 These findings are particularly relevant to early development because adult obesity and its cardiovascular consequences appear to have their origins during childhood.4 Young children with obese parents tend to become obese adults.5 Obesity in older children is a significant predictor of adult obesity independent of parental weight5 and is associated with a significant increase in death during adulthood from coronary heart disease.6 Offspring of parents with coronary heart disease are generally overweight beginning in childhood and tend to have higher levels of lipids and fasting insulin as adults.7
The mechanisms linking overweight to cardiovascular risk are not clearly defined. However, insulin resistance is known to be strongly related to obesity,8 9 and the association of obesity with the cardiovascular risk factors of hyperlipidemia and hypertension form the well-recognized insulin resistance syndrome.10 11 12 13 A direct association between weight and insulin resistance has been reported in children,14 15 16 as has the association of insulin resistance with lipids16 17 and blood pressure.16 18 19
It has been suggested that the rate of weight gain during childhood may be a more significant factor for adult cardiovascular risk than an isolated measurement of weight at any single point in time.20 From this and the studies noted above, it seems reasonable to propose that weight gain, beginning in childhood and continuing through the first 2 decades of life, may influence the development of insulin-induced cardiovascular risk that leads ultimately to clinical adverse events in adulthood. The present study addresses this issue by assessing the effect of body size and change in body size during childhood and adolescence on the cardiovascular risk factors of fasting insulin, lipids, and systolic blood pressure (SBP) in young adulthood.
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Methods |
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The Minneapolis Children's Blood Pressure Study was started in the 1977 to 1978 school year with blood pressure screening of 10 423 first through third grade children (99% of all children enrolled in those grades) in the Minneapolis public schools. After this screening, a cohort was selected for long-term evaluation as follows: all children from the top and bottom 5 percentiles of the SBP distribution, 50% of the remaining black children, 1 of 9 of the remaining white children, and all others. There were no exclusion criteria. Written consent for longitudinal evaluation was obtained from 1207 of the 2641 children in the selected cohort.21 22
The 1207 children were examined approximately twice yearly through
their grade school and junior high school years and once yearly during
high school. At each examination, measurements of height, weight, and
blood pressure were obtained by trained examiners according to a
standardized protocol. Blood pressure was measured 2 times with
participants in the seated position, and the average was used for all
analyses. A post–high school (PH) examination was conducted
within 2 years of graduation from high school, at which time blood
pressure and anthropometric data were obtained from 817 participants of
the original group of 1207. This group of 817 was recontacted 
5
years after the PH visit, and 679 were reexamined in 1993 to 1995 (age,
23.6±0.1 years), forming the sample for the present study. In
addition to the anthropometric and blood pressure data, a fasting blood
sample was obtained at the 1993 to 1995 visit for insulin,
cholesterol, HDL cholesterol (HDL-C),
triglycerides, and LDL cholesterol (LDL-C).
Childhood is defined in this study as the period from examination 1 (age, 7.7±0.1 years) through examination 9 (age, 12.7±0.1 years); the mean number of observations per participant was 8.4±0.04. Adolescence is defined as the period from examination 10 (age, 13.4±0.1 years) through examination PH (age, 18.3±0.1 years); the mean number of observations per participant was 7.3±0.07. To determine the rate of increase (slope) for weight, body mass index (BMI), or height during the childhood and adolescent periods of observation, simple linear regression was used to fit a straight line to the respective measurements over time for each individual. Then, the individual slopes were used in regression analyses in which each of the risk factors (ie, fasting insulin, lipids, and SBP) was taken as the dependent variable and the slopes of the respective childhood or adolescence weight, BMI, or height measurements were taken as the independent variable.
Serum lipids were measured by the University of Minnesota Hospital laboratory on a Cobas FARA. Cholesterol was determined by a standard enzymatic-cholesterol oxidase-based method; HDL-C was determined after precipitation on non-HDL lipoproteins with magnesium/dextran precipitating reagent; triglycerides were determined by use of a standard glycerol-blanked, enzymatic triglyceride method. LDL-C was calculated by the Friedewald equation. Fasting insulin was measured with a radioimmunoassay kit (Equate RIA, Binax Corp).
Data were analyzed by ANOVA, simple linear regression, multiple linear regression analysis, and Pearson correlation analysis. All data are expressed as mean±SEM. Percentiles for obesity were determined from recently published data for children23 and from the NIH Consensus Development Conference Statement.24
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Results |
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As noted, the sample for this study consisted of 679 of the original cohort of 1207 children entering the study at baseline. Comparison of baseline data (sex, race, height, weight, BMI, SBP, and diastolic blood pressure) between this sample and the nonparticipants (n=528) did not show any significant differences.
The mean BMI at baseline for the 679 participants was 16.5±0.1
kg/m2 (range, 8 to 34
kg/m2). A BMI between the 85th and 95th
percentiles (ie, increased risk of overweight) was found in 64 children
and 
95th percentile (obesity) was found in 50 children. The mean BMI
at the young adult evaluation was 25.7±0.2 kg/m2
(range, 17 to 64 kg/m2), with BMI exceeding
standards for obesity in 165.
Data describing the participants at the young adult (age, 23.6 years)
evaluation, including anthropometric and laboratory data, are
presented in Table 1
. The
cohort was predominantly white (66%), with 25% blacks and 4% Native
Americans. The male-to-female distribution was 52% to 48%. As would
be expected, the male participants were taller and heavier and had a
higher mean SBP than female participants, but BMI was similar between
male and female subjects.
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At the young adult evaluation, weight, BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, and triceps skin-fold thickness were positively correlated with fasting insulin (P<0.0001), cholesterol (P=0.008 to 0.0001), triglycerides (P=<0.0001), and LDL-C (P=0.0003 to 0.0001) and negatively correlated with HDL-C (P<0.0001); height was positively correlated with triglycerides (P=0.003) and negatively correlated with HDL-C (P=0.001). Fasting insulin was positively correlated with cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-C and negatively correlated with HDL-C (P<0.0001). For these and the following analyses, results were virtually identical when male, female, black, or white subjects were analyzed separately.
Initial childhood weight and BMI (mean age, 7.7 years) were highly
correlated with young adult weight and BMI, respectively
(P=0.0001) (Figure 1). A
highly significant correlation was also noted (r=0.479,
P=0.0001) between childhood and young adult height. Young
adult fasting insulin, triglyceride, HDL-C, and SBP levels
were significantly related to initial childhood weight, BMI, and height
(Table 2), but the relations of
cholesterol and LDL-C to body measurements were not
significant.
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Figure 2 shows the mean slopes for
height, weight, and BMI for the 679 subjects during childhood and
adolescence. As expected, the rate of increase in height decreased
substantially during adolescence. The rate of increase in weight also
decreased during adolescence, but only by 25%, and the rate of
increase in BMI decreased by only 10%. Table 3 shows the regression analyses
of fasting insulin, lipid, and SBP levels on rates of increase in body
size measurements. The rate of increase in height during childhood was
not significantly related to any of the risk factors in young
adulthood, except for a weak relation to LDL-C; the rate of increase in
height during adolescence was significantly related only to SBP. In
contrast, rates of increase in both weight and BMI during childhood
were related significantly to young adult fasting insulin, all lipid,
and SBP levels. Rates of increase in weight and BMI during adolescence
were significantly related to fasting insulin, HDL-C, and SBP; weight
also was related significantly but less strongly to
triglycerides.
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) and adolescence (
).
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Multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the relation of initial childhood weight, rate of weight increase during childhood, and rate of weight increase during adolescence on young adult fasting insulin, with fasting insulin as the dependent variable. The relation between fasting insulin and initial childhood weight was not significant (P=0.1217), whereas the relations to both childhood and adolescent rates of weight gain were highly significant (P<0.0001).
The influence of weight on young adult fasting insulin also was
evaluated by constructing a 2x2 analysis with subjects divided
according to their position above or below the median childhood and
adolescent rates of weight gain (Table 4). Subjects above the median of weight
gain during both childhood and adolescence had a significantly greater
mean fasting insulin in young adulthood (190.1±7.2 pmol/L) than
subjects below the median during both childhood and adolescence
(116.2±7.2 pmol/L), below the median during childhood and above the
median during adolescence (134.9±5.7 pmol/L), or above the median
during childhood and below the median during adolescence (135.6±5.7
pmol/L) (all P<0.0001). The mean fasting insulin in the
last 2 groups was slightly greater than in the group with rate of
weight gain below the median during both childhood and adolescence
(P=0.0318 and P=0.0824, respectively). Similar
results were obtained when BMI was substituted for weight or when 2x2
tables were constructed for each of the lipids and SBP. Thus, a rate of
weight gain below the median in both childhood and adolescence resulted
in the lowest level of risk as a young adult, whereas a rate of weight
gain above the median in both childhood and adolescence placed a
subject at the highest level of risk as a young adult.
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Discussion |
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Weight is directly correlated with cardiovascular disease. The Framingham study followed a cohort of individuals for 26 years and showed that each 1-SD increment in relative weight was associated with a 15% increase in the risk of cardiovascular events in men and a 22% increase in women.1 Weight is also directly related to the risk factors for cardiovascular disease. In the Community Hypertension Evaluation Clinic, a collaborative clinic screening of >1 million subjects, overweight was associated with a 50% higher prevalence of hypertension in both younger and older individuals.25 Young adults (mean age, 22 years) in the Beaver County Lipid Study had positive and significant correlations between BMI and LDL-C and triglycerides.26 Conversely, weight loss reduces risk in overweight individuals.27 28
The relation between weight and cardiovascular risk factors is also present during childhood. Waist-to-hip ratio has been positively correlated with serum cholesterol and LDL-C as early as 4 years of age.29 A direct association between weight and insulin resistance has been reported in children, and body size has been shown to be a significant correlate of blood pressure and lipids in children and adolescents.18 19 30 31 32 An increase in obesity during childhood is related to changes in lipids and lipoproteins that are consistent with a more atherogenic lipid profile. Children examined at 5 to 12 years of age in the Bogalusa Study and reexamined 5 years later had significant correlations between change in triceps skin-fold thickness and change in cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-C, HDL-C, and VLDL cholesterol33 ; in 2 separate Bogalusa cohorts evaluated after an 8-year period of observation, increases in weight were accompanied by adverse changes in lipids and lipoproteins.34
The relevance of childhood weight to adult cardiovascular risk is beginning to be firmly established. As recently reviewed,35 BMI shows a strong tracking effect from childhood into young adulthood. In particular, the BMI tracking correlations in the Muscatine Study from childhood to early adulthood ranged from 0.58 to 0.91, and most obese children became obese adults.36 This tracking effect is accompanied by an increase in adult cardiovascular risk. A 40-year follow-up in Stockholm, Sweden, showed a significant relation between overweight in adolescence and adult premature death and cardiovascular disease.37 Similarly, a recent evaluation of adults who were enrolled as children in the Harvard Growth Study in the 1920s showed that increased adult morbidity and mortality from coronary heart disease were related to overweight in adolescence.6
The present study has shown not only that height, weight, and BMI measured in early childhood (mean age, 7.7 years) are significantly associated with body size in young adulthood (mean age, 23.6 years) but also that these measurements are significantly related to young adult levels of fasting insulin, lipid, and SBP. However, when the associations between these risk factors and the rate of increase in height, weight, or BMI, determined from multiple measurements obtained throughout childhood and adolescence, were examined, a significant relation was found with only weight and BMI. The lack of association with change in height may reflect the relatively stable rate of increase in height generally noted during growth. Although height tends to accelerate coincident with weight in children becoming obese before puberty, the relative change in height is considerably less than the relative change in weight.38 Thus, the results from this study suggest that weight gain in excess of normal growth during childhood is a major constitutional determinant of young adult cardiovascular risk.
This is of particular interest with regard to the finding that rate of
change in weight and BMI predict fasting insulin levels.
Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are
strongly correlated with obesity.10 11 12 13 39 Experimental
studies of obesity in humans, in which weight was increased 20% over
3 months, have shown a corresponding 50% increase in fasting
insulin levels.40 Dose-response insulin clamp studies
comparing obese and normal weight subjects have shown significantly
reduced insulin-mediated glucose uptake in the obese
subjects.9 Insulin, in turn, is directly related to blood
pressure and lipid levels in adults10 11 12 13 and
children.16 18 19 Although the mechanism controlling these
relations is not well defined, insulin may influence the development of
hypertension via a direct effect on sodium retention in the
kidney,41 an increase in sympathetic nervous system
activity,42 and/or stimulation of growth in vascular
smooth muscle43 and may influence the concentration of
serum lipids via an influence on hepatic lipid
metabolism.10 Thus, the rate of increase in
weight and body mass during the first 2 decades of life appears to
result in a concomitant increase in serum insulin levels and an adverse
effect on cardiovascular risk factors, as noted in
these young adults. The significance of this association is further
suggested from studies in obese adults and adolescents showing improved
insulin sensitivity after weight loss.28 44
The significant correlation in this study between the initial childhood weight at 7.7 years of age and the young adult risk factors was no longer present when multiple regression analyses were conducted with each risk factor as the dependent variable and childhood weight, rate of increase in weight during childhood, and rate of increase in weight during adolescence as independent variables. These data suggest that regardless of body weight at a given point during early childhood, reduction in rate of weight gain during either childhood or adolescence has the potential to reduce subsequent levels of young adult cardiovascular risk; ie, the overweight 7-year-old child is not preordained to become a young adult with elevated insulin, lipid, or blood pressure level.
It has been estimated that the risk of myocardial infarction is 35% to 55% less in normal-weight compared with obese adults.45 However, the influence of obesity on cardiovascular risk begins before adulthood, and overweight during adolescence is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease in male6 37 and female subjects.37 The present study helps to explain this influence by showing that the degree of weight gain during childhood and adolescence is directly related to levels of cardiovascular risk factors in young adulthood. Thus, the potential public health implications are compelling. The prevalence of overweight in youth is increasing,46 and childhood obesity predicts adult obesity.5 On the basis of the data from this study, it can be expected that there will be a steady increase in the number of at-risk individuals as today's children become adults.
It seems reasonable to suggest that strategies designed to limit cardiovascular risk should address weight during childhood and adolescence. However, the question of weight loss in children has raised legitimate concerns among pediatricians.47 First, weight loss programs are difficult to implement, and compliance is usually poor in this age group. Second, few physicians have the time or systems in place to conduct effective dietary intervention. Third, there is concern about development of eating disorders in this highly susceptible childhood/adolescent population. Although the data linking childhood obesity and adult cardiovascular risk seem clear, the most appropriate clinical response is less clear and will require careful and creative public policy considerations.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by NHLBI grant HL-19877.
Received July 15, 1998; revision received November 17, 1998; accepted December 7, 1998.
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B. I. Razzouk, S. R. Rose, S. Hongeng, D. Wallace, M. P. Smeltzer, M. Zacher, C.-H. Pui, and M. M. Hudson Obesity in Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Lymphoma J. Clin. Oncol., April 1, 2007; 25(10): 1183 - 1189. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. R. Sinaiko, J. Steinberger, A. Moran, C.-P. Hong, R. J. Prineas, and D. R. Jacobs Jr Influence of Insulin Resistance and Body Mass Index at Age 13 on Systolic Blood Pressure, Triglycerides, and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol at Age 19 Hypertension, October 1, 2006; 48(4): 730 - 736. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. T. Bloomgarden Third Annual World Congress on the Insulin Resistance Syndrome: Mediators, antecedents, and measurement Diabetes Care, July 1, 2006; 29(7): 1700 - 1706. [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. R. Srinivasan, L. Myers, and G. S. Berenson Changes in Metabolic Syndrome Variables Since Childhood in Prehypertensive and Hypertensive Subjects: The Bogalusa Heart Study Hypertension, July 1, 2006; 48(1): 33 - 39. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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American Heart Association, S. S. Gidding, B. A. Dennison, L. L. Birch, S. R. Daniels, M. W. Gilman, A. H. Lichtenstein, K. T. Rattay, J. Steinberger, N. Stettler, et al. Dietary Recommendations for Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners Pediatrics, February 1, 2006; 117(2): 544 - 559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics, S. S. Gidding, B. A. Dennison, L. L. Birch, S. R. Daniels, M. W. Gilman, A. H. Lichtenstein, K. T. Rattay, J. Steinberger, N. Stettler, et al. Dietary Recommendations for Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners: Consensus Statement From the American Heart Association Circulation, September 27, 2005; 112(13): 2061 - 2075. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Y. Tuli and V. R. Dharnidharka Utility of Renal Imaging in the Diagnostic Evaluation of Obese Childhood Primary Hypertension Clinical Pediatrics, September 1, 2005; 44(7): 589 - 592. [Abstract] [PDF]
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Z. T. Bloomgarden Second World Congress on the Insulin Resistance Syndrome: Mediators, pediatric insulin resistance, the polycystic ovary syndrome, and malignancy Diabetes Care, July 1, 2005; 28(7): 1821 - 1830. [Full Text] [PDF]
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US Preventive Services Task Force Screening and Interventions for Overweight in Children and Adolescents: Recommendation Statement Pediatrics, July 1, 2005; 116(1): 205 - 209. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. P. Whitlock, S. B. Williams, R. Gold, P. R. Smith, and S. A. Shipman Screening and Interventions for Childhood Overweight: A Summary of Evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force Pediatrics, July 1, 2005; 116(1): e125 - e144. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. R. Sinaiko, J. Steinberger, A. Moran, R. J. Prineas, B. Vessby, S. Basu, R. Tracy, and D. R. Jacobs Jr Relation of Body Mass Index and Insulin Resistance to Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Inflammatory Factors, and Oxidative Stress During Adolescence Circulation, April 19, 2005; 111(15): 1985 - 1991. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Schooling, G. M Leung, E. D Janus, S. Y. Ho, A. J Hedley, and T. H. Lam Childhood migration and cardiovascular risk Int. J. Epidemiol., December 1, 2004; 33(6): 1219 - 1226. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Paradis, M. Lambert, J. O'Loughlin, C. Lavallee, J. Aubin, E. Delvin, E. Levy, and J. A. Hanley Blood Pressure and Adiposity in Children and Adolescents Circulation, September 28, 2004; 110(13): 1832 - 1838. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. A. Ross, K. C. Oeffinger, S. M. Davies, A. C. Mertens, E. K. Langer, W. R. Kiffmeyer, C. A. Sklar, M. Stovall, Y. Yasui, and L. L. Robison Genetic Variation in the Leptin Receptor Gene and Obesity in Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Report From the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study J. Clin. Oncol., September 1, 2004; 22(17): 3558 - 3562. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 Y F Cheung, K Y Wong, B. C C Lam, and N S Tsoi Relation of arterial stiffness with gestational age and birth weight Arch. Dis. Child., March 1, 2004; 89(3): 217 - 221. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Hardy, M. E. Wadsworth, C. Langenberg, and D. Kuh Birthweight, childhood growth, and blood pressure at 43 years in a British birth cohort Int. J. Epidemiol., February 1, 2004; 33(1): 121 - 129. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Li, W. Chen, S. R. Srinivasan, E. Boerwinkle, and G. S. Berenson The Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-{gamma}2 Gene Polymorphism (Pro12Ala) Beneficially Influences Insulin Resistance and Its Tracking From Childhood to Adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study Diabetes, May 1, 2003; 52(5): 1265 - 1269. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. C. Oeffinger, A. C. Mertens, C. A. Sklar, Y. Yasui, T. Fears, M. Stovall, T. A. Vik, P. D. Inskip, and L. L. Robison Obesity in Adult Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study J. Clin. Oncol., April 1, 2003; 21(7): 1359 - 1365. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Freemark Pharmacologic Approaches to the Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes in High Risk Pediatric Patients J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2003; 88(1): 3 - 13. [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Greenland, S. S Gidding, and R. P Tracy Commentary: Lifelong prevention of atherosclerosis: the critical importance of major risk factor exposures Int. J. Epidemiol., December 1, 2002; 31(6): 1129 - 1134. [Full Text]
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B. Falkner, S. Hassink, J. Ross, and S. Gidding Dysmetabolic Syndrome: Multiple Risk Factors for Premature Adult Disease in an Adolescent Girl Pediatrics, July 1, 2002; 110(1): e14 - 14. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. H. Eckel, M. Wassef, A. Chait, B. Sobel, E. Barrett, G. King, M. Lopes-Virella, J. Reusch, N. Ruderman, G. Steiner, et al. Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease: Writing Group II: Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis in Diabetes Circulation, May 7, 2002; 105 (18): e138 - e143. [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Maffeis, P. Moghetti, A. Grezzani, M. Clementi, R. Gaudino, and L. Tato Insulin Resistance and the Persistence of Obesity from Childhood into Adulthood J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2002; 87(1): 71 - 76. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. R. Srinivasan, L. Myers, and G. S. Berenson Predictability of Childhood Adiposity and Insulin for Developing Insulin Resistance Syndrome (Syndrome X) in Young Adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study Diabetes, January 1, 2002; 51(1): 204 - 209. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. S. Freedman, L. K. Khan, W. H Dietz, S. R. Srinivasan, and G. S. Berenson Relationship of Childhood Obesity to Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors in Adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study Pediatrics, September 1, 2001; 108(3): 712 - 718. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. S. Johnson, R. Figueroa-Colon, T. T.-K. Huang, J. H. Dwyer, and M. I. Goran Longitudinal Changes in Body Fat in African American and Caucasian Children: Influence of Fasting Insulin and Insulin Sensitivity J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2001; 86(7): 3182 - 3187. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Freemark and D. Bursey The Effects of Metformin on Body Mass Index and Glucose Tolerance in Obese Adolescents With Fasting Hyperinsulinemia and a Family History of Type 2 Diabetes Pediatrics, April 1, 2001; 107(4): e55 - e55. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. J. Crespo, E. Smit, R. P. Troiano, S. J. Bartlett, C. A. Macera, and R. E. Andersen Television Watching, Energy Intake, and Obesity in US Children: Results From the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994 Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, March 1, 2001; 155(3): 360 - 365. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Cavadini, A. M. Siega-Riz, and B. M Popkin US adolescent food intake trends from 1965 to 1996 Arch. Dis. Child., July 1, 2000; 83(1): 18 - 24. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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C.M. Law, A.W. Shiell, C.A. Newsome, H.E. Syddall, E.A. Shinebourne, P.M. Fayers, C.N. Martyn, and M. de Swiet Fetal, Infant, and Childhood Growth and Adult Blood Pressure: A Longitudinal Study From Birth to 22 Years of Age Circulation, March 5, 2002; 105(9): 1088 - 1092. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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