(Circulation. 1996;93:558-566.)
© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Dose-Dependent Effect of Endothelin-1 on Blood Flow to Normal and Collateral-Dependent Myocardium
From the Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis.
Correspondence to Robert J. Bache, MD, Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Box 508 UMHC, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455.
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Background Plasma levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1) increase during ischemia and could potentially contribute to impairment of myocardial blood flow (MBF). Because collateral vessels demonstrate enhanced responsiveness to certain vasoconstrictors, blood flow to collateral-dependent myocardium could be particularly sensitive to increases in ET-1 levels.
Methods and Results Studies were performed in 13 dogs in
which collateral vessel development was produced by fluoroscopic
embolization of the midleft anterior descending coronary artery
with a hollow plug 4 to 6 weeks before the study. MBF was measured with
radioactive microspheres at baseline and during 30-minute
infusions of ET-1 (1, 10, and 100 ng/min) into the left main
coronary artery. Because ET-1 stimulates
endothelial prostacyclin release, aortic and
coronary sinus levels of ET-1 and
6-keto–prostaglandin F1
were measured at the end of each infusion. ET-1 increased MBF from 0.82
mL·min-1·g-1
at baseline to 0.92
mL·min-1·g-1
at 10 ng/min (P<.05), which corresponded to a
coronary plasma concentration of 73±16 pg/mL. Blood flow in
the collateral zone was less (0.74
mL·min-1·g-1)
than in the normal zone (P<.05) and did not increase at an
ET-1 dose of 10 ng/min. MBF in the normal and collateral zones
significantly decreased when ET-1 was increased to 100 ng/min,
corresponding to a coronary sinus concentration of 175±45
pg/mL (P<.05). ET-1 produced dose-related increases in
aortic and coronary sinus 6-keto–prostaglandin
F1 and the transcoronary
difference (P<.05). To assess the importance of
prostacyclin in opposing the vasoconstriction produced by ET-1,
additional studies were performed after
cyclooxygenase blockade with
indomethacin. After indomethacin
administration, ET-1 (10 ng/min) caused a 120±23% increase in
collateral vascular resistance (P<.05) and abolished the
vasodilation that this dose produced in the normal zone.
Conclusions Blood flow to normal myocardium is increased at moderate plasma elevations of ET-1, whereas collateral blood flow is unchanged. Only at significantly elevated plasma concentrations of ET-1 is blood flow to normal and collateral-dependent myocardium impaired. Coronary endothelial production of prostacyclin in response to increasing concentrations of ET-1 represents an important means of blunting the vasoconstrictor properties of ET-1 in the canine coronary circulation. Coronary collateral vessels demonstrate a much greater dependence on prostacyclin production in blunting the vasoconstrictor properties of ET-1.
Key Words: vasoconstriction • prostaglandins • vasodilation • microspheres • endothelium
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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ET-1 is a member of a recently discovered family of peptides with profound vasoconstrictor properties.1 ET-1 has attracted interest clinically because elevated plasma concentrations occur with many vasoconstrictor states such as congestive heart failure2 and pulmonary hypertension.3 Elevations in ET-1 also occur in acute ischemic syndromes such as myocardial infarction4 and coronary vasospasm.5 Currently, it is unknown whether acute elevation of ET-1 in humans can impair myocardial perfusion. In animal experiments, intracoronary infusions of ET-1 have been shown to result in profound coronary vasoconstriction with severe depression of MBF.6 7 8 However, these changes occurred at ET-1 concentrations several orders of magnitude greater than those measured clinically. In addition to interacting with vascular smooth muscle, ET-1 has been shown to stimulate the release of NO and PGI2 from endothelial cells and isolated vessels.9 10 11 12 Thus, ET-1 might be capable of causing coronary vasodilation and vasoconstriction, with the net effect depending on agonist concentration.
After coronary occlusion, residual viable myocardium depends on collateral vessels for blood supply. Coronary collateral vessels demonstrate active vasomotion13 and undergo exaggerated vasoconstrictor responses to certain agonists such as vasopressin.14 It is thus possible that the increased ET-1 levels associated with acute ischemic syndromes could jeopardize blood flow to collateral-dependent myocardium. Currently, no information is available concerning the effect of ET-1 on collateral blood flow in the intact heart, although isolated vessel studies have suggested that collateral vessels may be less sensitive to the vasoconstrictor effect of ET-1 than normal coronary arterial vessels.15
This study was performed to examine the dose-dependent effect of ET-1 on blood flow to normal and collateral-dependent myocardium in a canine model of coronary artery occlusion. Doses of ET-1 were chosen to produce pathophysiologically relevant plasma concentrations. By measuring pressure in the collateral-dependent artery, we could distinguish between vasomotor responses of the collateral vessels and the resistance vessels in the collateral-dependent region in response to a range of ET-1 concentrations.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Induction of Collateral Vessels
Twenty-one mongrel dogs of either sex (20 to 25 kg) were premedicated with morphine sulfate (1 mg/kg IM), anesthetized with sodium thiamyl (20 mg/kg IV), intubated, and ventilated with room air. All dogs received procainamide (6 doses of 300 mg IM every 4 hours), gentamicin (3 mg/kg IV), and aqueous penicillin (20 000 U/kg IM). Under sterile conditions, the right common carotid artery was exposed and cannulated with a 9F sheath. After administration of heparin sulfate (6000 U IV), an 8F Judkins R4 coronary catheter was positioned in the left coronary ostium under fluoroscopic guidance, and a 0.014-in steerable angioplasty guide wire was advanced to the distal LAD. All dogs then received 100 µg IC nitroglycerin through the coronary catheter to cause maximal coronary artery vasodilation. A hollow stainless steel plug (1.1-mm ID, 2.3- to 2.7-mm OD, and 4-mm length) was advanced along the guide wire with a length of flanged PE-90 tubing into the LAD where it was wedged past the first diagonal branch. The guide wire was removed, and the position of the plug was recorded on videotape. The arterial sheath was removed, the right common carotid artery was ligated, and the skin was closed with staples. All dogs received supplemental analgesia. Three dogs suffered sudden death within 2 days of the procedure, probably secondary to ventricular arrhythmia produced by acute plug closure.
Surgical Protocol
The dogs were returned to the laboratory 4
to 6 weeks (mean,
30±4 days) after placement of the intravascular plug, premedicated
with morphine sulfate (1 mg/kg IM), anesthetized with
-chloralose (100 mg/kg IV followed by a continuous infusion of
10
mg·kg-1·h-1),
intubated, and ventilated with room air supplemented with oxygen to
maintain arterial blood gases in the
physiological range. All dogs received supplemental
morphine throughout the study (1 to 2 mg/h IV). Two 7F NIH catheters
were placed in the descending aorta through the femoral arteries for
measuring pressure and sampling blood. A similar catheter was
introduced into the left common carotid artery and positioned in the
left ventricle. A left thoracotomy was performed in the fifth
intercostal space, and the heart was suspended in a pericardial cradle.
Polyvinyl chloride catheters (3.0-mm OD) were placed in the left atrium
through the appendage and in the coronary sinus through its
ostium. The coronary arterial plug was located by
palpation, and the LAD was mobilized. Heparin sulfate (200 U/kg IV) was
administered, and the vessel was occluded proximally. The plug was
retrieved through a longitudinal arteriotomy, and the vessel was
allowed to bleed freely from the distal end to remove any residual
thrombus. The artery was then cannulated with a thin-walled
stainless steel cannula (4-mm OD). Pressure at the cannula tip was
measured with a 23-gauge tube incorporated into the wall of the
cannula. Resistance of the coronary cannula was previously
determined to be 0.097 mm
Hg·mL-1·min-1
flow. A PE-90 catheter was inserted into the proximal LAD and
retrogradely positioned into the left main coronary artery for
infusion of ET-1. The position of the catheter tip was determined by
palpation and confirmed at autopsy. One dog died during the surgical
procedure and was excluded from analysis.
Experimental Protocol
Group 1
The response to
graded intracoronary infusions of
ET-1 was studied in 13 dogs. Aortic, left ventricular, and
distal coronary pressures at the cannula tip were measured with
pressure transducers at the midchest level (Spectramed model TNF-R).
Left ventricular pressure was recorded at normal and
high gain for measurement of end-diastolic pressure.
Data were recorded on an eight-channel direct-writing
recorder (Coulbourne Instruments). At baseline and during each
infusion of plasma ET-1, blood was collected from the aorta and
coronary sinus for plasma measurements of ET-1 and
6-keto-PGF1. All blood samples were
immediately placed on ice and centrifuged, and the plasma was
stored at -70°C. ET-1 was infused into the left main
coronary artery at increasing doses of 1, 10, and 100 ng/min
for 30 minutes at each dose; the infusion rate for all doses of ET-1
was 0.6 cm3/min. Thirty-minute infusions were
used to allow plasma levels of ET-1 to rise to steady state levels.
Hemodynamic measurements, blood collection, and
microsphere determination of MBF were performed during the last
5 minutes of each infusion. MBF was measured at baseline and during
ET-1 infusions of 1, 10, and 100 ng/min.
Group 2
The importance of PGF1
production in modulating the coronary blood flow
responses to ET-1 was studied in 5 additional dogs prepared as
described above. MBF to the normal and collateral-dependent region
was measured under baseline conditions and 30 minutes after
cyclooxygenase blockade with 5 mg/kg IV
indomethacin. Each dog then received a 30-minute
infusion of ET-1 at 10 ng/min IC, and the MBF response was again
measured with microspheres. This infusion rate was chosen
because in the initial studies in group 1, this dose resulted in
significantly increased blood flow to the normal myocardial region.
Aortic and coronary sinus plasma levels of
6-keto-PGF1 were measured with each
intervention.
Myocardial Blood Flow
MBF was measured with
15-µm-diameter radioactive
microspheres obtained as 1.0 mCi in 10 mL of 10%
low-molecular-weight dextran. Microspheres were labeled
with 141Ce, 51Cr, 85Sr,
95Nb, or 46Sc (NEN Co) and agitated in an
ultrasonic bath for at least 10 minutes before injection. For each
intervention, 3x106 microspheres were
injected into the left atrium while a reference blood specimen was
withdrawn from the ascending aortic catheter at a rate of 15 mL/min
with a peristaltic pump. Reference sampling was begun at the time of
microsphere injection and continued for 90 seconds.
Determination of Collateral-Dependent
Myocardium
To allow determination of tissue blood flow in the
collateralized region, the shadow technique was used to delineate the
collateral-dependent myocardial region.16 For this
procedure, microspheres were administered into the left atrium
while the coronary cannula was perfused with nonradioactive
arterial blood from a pressurized reservoir. Cannula tip
pressure was maintained 10 to 15 mm Hg above mean aortic pressure
during microsphere injection. In this way, the
myocardium distal to the site of occlusion was marked with
nonradioactive blood to distinguish it from the remainder of the heart,
which was perfused with microsphere-containing blood.
Tissue Preparation
Hearts were excised and fixed in 10%
buffered formalin, and the
left ventricle was divided into four transverse rings parallel to the
mitral valve. The rings were then sectioned radially into 16 segments
that were divided into epicardial and endocardial halves. The resultant
specimens were weighed on an analytical balance and placed into vials
for counting. Myocardial and blood reference samples were counted in a
gamma spectrometer with a multichannel analyzer (Packard model
5912) at window settings corresponding to the peak energies of each
radionuclide. The activity in each window was corrected for background
and overlapping counts between isotopes with a digital computer. Blood
flow to each myocardial specimen (Qm) was computed with the
formula
Qm=QrxCm/Cr,
where Qr is the reference blood flow rate (milliliters per
minute), Cm is counts per minute of the myocardial
specimen, and Cr is counts per minute of the reference
blood specimen.
Microsphere injection during the shadow technique was used to define the collateral-dependent region. The mean and SD for blood flow to myocardial specimens remote from the collateral region, including the posterior and lateral left ventricular free wall and the posterior interventricular septum, were determined. Tissue specimens in which blood flow during the shadow injection was >3 SD below the mean were considered collateral dependent. Areas of infarction were excluded from analysis.
Preparation and Measurements of ET-1
ET-1, purchased from
Peninsula Laboratories, was diluted with
normal saline to the appropriate concentrations and mixed with 0.05%
BSA. The level of serum ET-1 was measured in 9 dogs and quantified by
radioimmunoassay with rabbit antiserum generated against ET-1. The
cross-reactivity of the antibody with ET-1 is 100%; with ET-2,
7%; with ET-3, 7%; and with big endothelin, 17%.
Measurement of
6-Keto-PGF1
6-keto-PGF1 (the stable
degradation
product of PGI2) was assayed from blood collected in
5-mmol/L EDTA tubes from the aorta and coronary sinus in 9
dogs. The samples were immediately placed on ice and separated by
centrifugation at 2500 rpm for 15 minutes at 4°C.
Plasma was stored at -70°C until assay. Immunoreactive
6-keto-PGF1 concentrations were determined
in reconstituted extracts by enzyme immunoassay (Cayman Chemical Co).
The detection limit of the assay is 9 pg/mL. The intra-assay and
interassay coefficients of variation are <10%.
Data Analysis
Collateral vessel resistance was calculated as
the pressure drop
from mean aortic pressure to the pressure at the cannula tip distal to
the occlusion divided by mean collateral zone blood flow.
Small-vessel resistance in the collateral-dependent region was
calculated as distal coronary pressure minus left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure divided
by mean collateral zone blood flow. Total vascular resistance in the
normal zone was calculated as aortic pressure minus left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure divided
by mean normal zone blood flow. Resistance calculations were expressed
as coronary resistance units in millimeters of mercury per
milliliter per minute per gram. Data were compared with Friedman's
nonparametric ANOVA for repeated measures. Individual
comparisons were performed with the Wilcoxon signed-rank
test. Data are expressed as mean±SEM.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Group 1
Hemodynamic Measurements
Table 1
gives hemodynamic
variables measured at baseline and during ET-1 infusion. There was
no change in aortic pressure, distal coronary pressure, left
ventricular end-diastolic pressure, or peak
left ventricular systolic pressure in response to
increasing doses of ET-1. Heart rate increased during ET-1 infusion and
was significantly higher at the 100 ng/min dose compared with baseline
(P<.05). There was no change in the transcollateral
pressure gradient in response to ET-1.
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Myocardial Blood
Flow
Left ventricular mass ranged from 85 to 128 g
(mean, 105±4 g). The collateral zone weighed 14.5±4 g and
comprised
14±1% of the left ventricle. Fig 1 shows the mean MBF
in the normal and collateral-dependent regions at baseline and
during infusion of ET-1. MBF at baseline in the normal zone was
0.82±0.08
mL·min-1·g-1
and was significantly greater than blood flow in the collateral region,
which was 0.74±0.07
mL·min-1·g-1
(P<.05). There was no significant effect of ET-1 at 1
ng/min on MBF to either region. When ET-1 was increased to 10 ng/min, a
significant increase in normal-zone blood flow occurred
(P<.05), whereas there was no significant change in blood
flow to the collateral region. At the highest infusion rate of ET-1
(100 ng/min), mean blood flow decreased to 0.61±0.07 and
0.48±0.06
mL·min-1·g-1
in the normal and collateral zones, respectively (each
P<.05).
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) and collateral-dependent (
) regions at
baseline and with increasing doses of ET-1 (1, 10, and 100 ng/min IC
for 30 minutes). Mean MBF in the normal region significantly increased
compared with baseline at 10 ng/min. Both normal and collateral zone
blood flow decreased compared with baseline at the highest dose of ET-1
(100 ng/min). *P<.05.
Table 2 shows blood flow
distribution by transmural
layers. The endocardial-to-epicardial flow ratio at baseline in
the normal zone was 1.11±0.05 and was significantly higher than in the
collateral region (0.93±0.07, P<.05). ET-1 did not alter
the transmural distribution of blood flow in either the normal or the
collateral zone, so the endocardial-to-epicardial flow ratio
remained significantly higher in the normal zone at all doses of ET-1
(P<.05). At 10 ng/min, both subendocardial and
subepicardial blood flows in the normal region were greater than at
baseline; this change was of borderline significance
(P<.07). Subendocardial and subepicardial flows were
greater in the normal region compared with the collateral zone at each
dose of ET-1 (P<.05).
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Coronary and Collateral
Vascular Resistance
Table 3 gives the values for
collateral vascular
resistance and coronary vascular resistance in the normal and
collateral-dependent regions. Collateral vessel resistance was
unchanged during administration of ET-1 at 1 and 10 ng/min but
increased significantly at 100 ng/min (P<.01) as MBF to the
collateral-dependent region fell significantly compared with
baseline. Small-vessel resistance in the collateral region was
unchanged during ET-1 compared with baseline at all doses.
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Coronary vascular resistance in the normal zone was unchanged compared with baseline at an ET-1 dose of 1 ng/min. At 10 ng/min, normal-zone vascular resistance underwent a small decrease of borderline significance compared with baseline (P<.07). The highest dose of ET-1 caused a significant increase in normal-zone coronary vascular resistance (P<.05) compared with 10 ng/min.
Plasma Levels of ET-1
Table
4 gives the aortic and coronary sinus
plasma levels of ET-1 measured at baseline and during infusion of ET-1.
Baseline aortic and coronary sinus levels of ET-1 were 4.9±1.7
and 6.7±2.2 pg/mL, respectively, and increased with increasing doses
of ET-1 (P<.05). Because ET-1 was infused by the
intracoronary route, coronary sinus levels were
significantly higher than aortic plasma levels
(P<.05).
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Plasma Levels of
6-Keto-PGF1
Fig 2 shows the aortic and
coronary
sinus plasma levels of
6-keto-PGF1. Aortic
6-keto-PGF1 increased from 242±39 pg/mL at
baseline to 562±94 pg/mL at 100 ng/min (P<.05);
coronary venous concentrations increased from 372±43 to
784±153 pg/mL (P<.05). The coronary AV difference
of 6-keto-PGF1 also increased with
increasing doses of ET-1, indicating that ET-1 stimulated
production of PGI2 in the coronary
vasculature.
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P<.07
vs baseline.
Group 2
Hemodynamic Measurements
Table
5 lists the hemodynamic data
for the 5 dogs that received ET-1 after indomethacin.
There was no change in mean aortic, peak left ventricular
systolic, or end-diastolic pressure with ET-1.
Heart rate decreased from 105±8 to 91±12 bpm after
indomethacin administration (P<.07) and to
85±6 bpm after ET-1 infusion (P<.05). Distal
coronary pressure was unchanged with
indomethacin but decreased to 61±7 mm Hg during ET-1
infusion (P<.07), resulting in a significant increase in
the transcollateral pressure gradient.
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Coronary Blood Flow
Response to ET-1 After
Indomethacin Infusion
Table 6 gives MBF data. Mean MBF
in the normal
region during control conditions was 0.76±0.20
mL ·min-1 · g-1
and decreased to 0.59±0.07
mL ·min-1 · g-1
during infusion of ET-1 after indomethacin. Mean MBF in
the collateral region decreased from 0.65±0.16 to 0.46±0.07
mL·min-1·g-1
during ET-1 infusion. This decrease occurred primarily in the
subepicardium (P<.05), so the combination of ET-1 and
indomethacin caused a significant increase in the
endocardial-to-epicardial flow ratio (P<.05).
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Administration of ET-1 in the presence of indomethacin
caused significant coronary collateral vasoconstriction,
resulting in a 120±23% increase in collateral vascular resistance
(P<.05). This was in contrast to the dogs in group 1 in
which the same dose of ET-1 had no effect on collateral resistance (Fig
3). Coronary vascular resistance in the normal
region also increased in response to ET-1 infusion after
indomethacin, but this response was much smaller than
in the collateral vessels (mean increase, 28±9%). In contrast, the
same dose of ET-1 produced a small but significant decrease in normal
zone vascular resistance in the dogs in group 1 that did not receive
indomethacin (Table 3
).
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Plasma Levels of
6-Keto-PGF1
In the dogs that received indomethacin,
there was
no increase in the production of
6-keto-PGF1 in response to 10 ng/min ET-1.
Baseline aortic plasma levels of 411±66 pg/mL decreased to
230±31
pg/mL after indomethacin administration
(P<.05). Coronary venous
6-keto-PGF1 levels at baseline were 758±206
pg/mL and decreased to 332±62 pg/mL after indomethacin
administration (P<.05). ET-1 infusion failed to increase
aortic or coronary venous 6-keto
PGF1 levels. In contrast, ET-1 produced a
significant increase in aortic and coronary sinus levels of
6-keto PGF1 in the group 1 dogs that did not
receive indomethacin.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Several new findings resulted from this study. First, blood flow to normal myocardium increased at moderate plasma elevations of ET-1, whereas collateral blood flow did not change. Second, ET-1 stimulated the endothelial release of PGI2 in a dose-dependent manner, which contributed to the maintenance of MBF in the presence of increased ET-1 levels. Third, inhibition of PGI2 production with indomethacin abolished the increase in normal-zone blood flow that occurred with moderate elevations in plasma levels of ET-1. Fourth, collateral vessels demonstrated a much greater dependence on PGI2 production compared with normal coronary vessels because the administration of indomethacin resulted in severe collateral vessel vasoconstriction at moderate plasma levels of ET-1. The mechanisms and potential implications of these findings will be discussed in detail.
Response of Normal Coronary Vessels to ET-1
Early studies in
intact animals documented that ET-1 can cause
intense coronary vasoconstriction with reductions of MBF that
can result in wall motion abnormalities and even death.6
These MBF reductions were attributed to vasoconstriction of the
coronary microvasculature7 and, at higher doses,
of the epicardial arteries.6 17 However, the doses of
ET-1
used resulted in plasma concentrations that often were several orders
of magnitude greater than values reported in pathological
states.
Using a smaller dose of ET-1 (0.3-pmol/kg bolus) injected into the left circumflex coronary artery of anesthetized dogs, Tsuchiya et al18 observed a very small (not statistically significant) increase in MBF. At higher doses, coronary blood flow decreased. Donckier et al19 infused ET-1 at 2.5 ng/kg IV for 2 hours in 15 chronically instrumented dogs; a final ET-1 plasma concentration of 32 pg/mL was achieved that caused no change in LAD blood flow or myocardial function. Wang et al20 studied the relation between plasma ET-1 concentration and MBF in awake dogs. After a 20-minute infusion at 1 ng·kg-1·min-1 IV, there was no change in coronary blood flow or large coronary artery diameter; however, the plasma ET-1 level was not significantly different from baseline (4±1 pg/mL). When the infusion rate was increased to 10 ng·kg-1·min-1, the systemic plasma ET-1 level increased to 70 pg/mL and coronary blood flow decreased by 22%. In contrast we observed a significant increase in normal-zone MBF at a similar coronary plasma concentration after a 30-minute infusion of ET-1 at 10 ng/min. This difference may be related to differences between awake and anesthetized animals. In agreement with other studies,6 7 8 we observed a significant decrease in MBF at a higher dose of ET-1 (100 ng/min), which resulted in a coronary sinus concentration of 175±45 pg/mL. These studies indicate that the response to ET-1 is concentration dependent, so either coronary vasodilation or vasoconstriction can occur, depending on the infusion rate.
Transmural Distribution of MBF
When MBF was examined by
transmural layers, ET-1 caused no change
in the endocardial-to-epicardial flow ratio in the normal
region at doses that caused either vasodilation (10 ng/min) or
vasoconstriction (100 ng/min). Previous studies6 17
reported that vasoconstrictor doses of ET-1 caused a greater reduction
of subepicardial blood flow, but this may be related to the higher
doses of ET-1 used in those studies. The
endocardial-to-epicardial flow ratio in the collateral region
was consistently lower than in the normal zone and was
unchanged throughout the ET-1 infusion range.
Mechanism of ET-1–Induced Vasodilation
Our findings
indicate that continuous infusions of low doses of
ET-1 that result in pathophysiologically
relevant plasma concentrations can cause coronary vasodilation.
These results support the hypothesis that the net effect of ET-1 on
coronary vasomotor tone is dose dependent and that
vasoconstriction will occur only at concentrations sufficiently
elevated to overcome the endothelial release of
PGI2 or NO. Bolus injections of ET-1 have been reported to
cause transient coronary vasodilation lasting 30 to 60 seconds,
followed by sustained
vasoconstriction.20 21 22 In isolated
rat hearts21 perfused at a constant flow rate, a 10-pmol
bolus of ET-1 resulted in an immediate 14 mm Hg decrease in
coronary perfusion pressure followed by sustained
vasoconstriction. Studies in rat aortic rings23 showed
that after binding ET-1 is internalized with its receptor so that the
vasoconstrictor response is diminished with subsequent doses. This may
also occur in endothelial cells because the transient
vasodilator response to bolus doses of ET-1 is also diminished with
repeated administration.24 Thus, short-term
administration of ET-1 can produce different results from those
obtained during long-term exposure to elevations in this
peptide.
The response of coronary blood vessels to ET-1 appears to be dependent on vessel size. Thus, intracoronary infusions of ET-1 (10-8 to 10-7 mol/L) dilated arterioles <130 µm in diameter but did not affect larger arteries in anesthetized dogs.25 After cyclooxygenase blockade with indomethacin, ET-1 caused constriction of coronary arteries, but arterioles <130 µm still dilated, although the mechanism was not studied. In contrast, Homma et al,26 using intravital microscopy, observed prominent vasoconstriction in arterioles <200 µm after intracoronary ET-1 infusion (2.5- to 75-pg bolus doses). However, Ku27 showed that isolated epicardial vessels are less sensitive than intramyocardial vessels to the vasoconstrictor effects of ET-1. It is likely that ET-1 receptor density and subtype differ with vessel size, location, and species28 and that stimulation of endothelium-dependent vasodilators such as PGI2 and NO also vary in efficacy with vessel location and animal species.
To cause vasoconstriction, intraluminal ET-1 must diffuse across the endothelial layer to reach the smooth muscle. In human umbilical vein endothelial cell monolayers, only 6% of ET-1 diffused across the monolayer in the first hour.29 In the absence of endothelial cells, near equilibration of ET-1 occurred over the same time interval. The physiological importance of this finding was demonstrated by Lamping et al,25 who used stroboscopic microscopic visualization of epicardial microvessels in beating hearts of anesthetized dogs. They found that intracoronary administration of ET-1 (10-8 mol/L) resulted in vasodilation of small arterioles and that topical administration produced vasoconstriction. In addition to acting as a diffusion barrier, vascular endothelial cells were recently shown to possess a deamidase enzyme that inactivates ET-1.30 Thus, disease processes that impair the barrier function or vasodilator mechanisms of the vascular endothelium could potentiate the vasoconstrictor properties of ET-1.
Role of PGI2
PGI2 has been demonstrated
to exert potent
vasodilating effects on the coronary vasculature in normal and
collateral-dependent myocardium. Using isolated,
fibrillating, blood-perfused canine hearts 4 to 5 weeks after
occlusion of the left circumflex coronary artery with an
ameroid constrictor, Scholtholt et al31 found that
PGI2 produced dose-dependent increases in blood flow in
both the normal and collateralized myocardial regions.
Several
investigators have demonstrated that PGI2 can blunt
the vasoconstrictor properties of ET-1.10 In isolated
human aortic endothelial cells, ET-1 (10 µmol/L) was
shown to stimulate the release of a wide variety of
cyclooxygenase products, including
6-keto-PGF1.12 In
anesthetized dogs, bolus doses of ET-1 (0.03 to 0.3 nmol/kg)
elicit large increases in plasma levels of
6-keto-PGF1.32 In this study,
ET-1 produced dose-dependent increases in aortic and
coronary sinus plasma levels of
6-keto-PGF1, the stable degradation
product of PGI2. Furthermore, the coronary AV
gradient of this product increased with increasing doses of ET-1,
indicating that ET-1 stimulated coronary production of
PGI2. These results support previous findings in porcine
coronary artery strips10 and cultured human aortic
endothelial cells12 demonstrating that
ET-1 stimulates endothelial release of
PGI2. Our results extend these findings by documenting this
interaction between ET-1 and PGI2 in the coronary
circulation of an intact animal. These opposing influences may explain
why coronary blood flow to the normal and collateral regions
underwent only modest changes over a wide range of ET-1 plasma
concentrations because PGI2 levels increased in parallel
with the rise in ET-1 levels. The importance of coronary
endothelial production of PGI2 is
demonstrated by the finding that normal-zone blood flow failed to
increase with ET-1 (10 ng/min) after indomethacin,
whereas collateral vasoconstriction to ET-1 was potentiated when
PGI2 production was inhibited (Fig 4).
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Role of NO
Studies using endothelial cells and isolated
vessels have demonstrated that ET-1 can stimulate the
production of NO, which promotes vasodilation and opposes
vasoconstriction produced by the agonist. In porcine coronary
artery strips with intact endothelium, low
concentrations of ET-1 (0.1 to 1.0 nmol/L) produced transient
relaxation accompanied by a reduction in smooth muscle cytosolic
Ca2+ concentration; these responses were abolished by
removal of the endothelium or pretreatment with the
nitric oxide synthase inhibitor
N-nitro-L-arginine.9 ET-1 in
higher concentrations (1 to 100 nmol/L) produced vasoconstriction
through a direct action on the vascular smooth muscle. Studies in
anesthetized dogs have demonstrated that inhibition of NO
production with
NG-monomethyl-L-arginine
potentiated the vasoconstrictor actions of ET-1 (2.5
ng·kg-1·min-1
IV for 120 minutes) on systemic, renal, and pulmonary
vasculature.33 However, this did not occur in the
coronary circulation because
NG-monomethyl-L-arginine
alone increased coronary vascular resistance to the same degree
as the combination of
NG-monomethyl-L-arginine
and ET-1, potentially supporting a balanced vasodilator and
vasoconstrictor role for ET-1 in the coronary
circulation.
Effect of ET-1 on the Collateral Circulation
Collateral
vessels demonstrate heightened sensitivity to certain
vasoconstrictors such as vasopressin, which can decrease blood flow to
the dependent myocardium at doses that do not affect blood
flow to normal myocardium.14 Using isolated
vessel rings, Parker et al15 found that collateral vessels
constricted smaller-than-normal coronary
arterial vessels to ET-1. An impaired collateral
vasoconstrictor response might be expected to protect collateral blood
flow when ET-1 levels are increased. In the present study, MBF in
the collateral region did not significantly change even though
coronary sinus concentrations of ET-1 exceeded 70 pg/mL. Only
at the highest infusion rate, when the coronary blood
concentration was 175±45 pg/mL, did collateral blood flow decrease
significantly. These results differ from previous reports in isolated
collateral vessels15 and indicate that in the intact
animal collateral vessels constrict similarly to normal vessels in
response to ET-1.
Coronary collateral vessels can synthesize
PGI2.
Furthermore, in dogs with long-term coronary occlusion,
PGI2 appears to cause tonic collateral vessel dilation
because cyclooxygenase blockade with
indomethacin significantly decreased retrograde blood
flow from the cannulated collateral-dependent
artery.34 In the present study, ET-1 increased
coronary sinus levels of
6-keto-PGF1. When PGI2
production was inhibited with indomethacin,
ET-1 in a dose that caused no change in collateral resistance in the
group 1 dogs produced a 120±23% increase in collateral vascular
resistance. This finding indicates that PGI2
production represents an important means of blunting
the vasoconstrictor effects of ET-1 in the collateral circulation. In
contrast, the response of coronary vascular resistance to ET-1
in the normal zone was much less affected by inhibition of
PGI2 production. This is in agreement with previous
findings that vasodilator prostaglandins are of greater
importance in collateral than in normal coronary
vessels.34
Well-developed collateral vessels exhibit NO-mediated endothelium-dependent vasodilation in response to agonists such as acetylcholine or bradykinin.35 36 37 Although the present study was carried out relatively early after coronary occlusion, we found that even at this early stage of collateral development the response to endothelium-dependent agonists is intact (unpublished observation). Thus, vasodilation of collateral vessels resulting from ET-1–stimulated production of NO also could potentially improve perfusion of the collateral-dependent region.
ET-1 also could alter blood flow to the collateral-dependent myocardium by influencing vasomotion of the resistance vessels in the collateral zone. Receptor-mediated, endothelium-dependent dilation has been shown to be impaired in microvessels chronically perfused by collateral vessels.38 Possibly for this reason, ET-1 failed to cause vasodilation in the collateral region as it did in the normal zone.
Clinical Implications
Myocardial ischemia can result in acute
elevations of
ET-1. The present findings confirm that ET-1 can cause
vasoconstriction in both normal and collateral-dependent regions of
myocardium, but this occurred only at the highest infusion
rate when mean coronary plasma concentrations exceeded
clinically measured levels. However, these studies were performed in
healthy dogs with intact endothelial function. It is
possible that the vasoconstrictor effects of ET-1 would be potentiated
in patients with coronary disease because of the
coexistence of endothelial dysfunction. This could
be especially important in patients with regions of
collateral-dependent myocardium because collateral
vessels demonstrated a greater dependence on PGI2
production for counteracting the vasoconstrictor effects of
ET-1.
Conclusions
Acute elevations in coronary plasma ET-1
concentrations
within a pathophysiological range did not
impair blood flow to normal or collateral-dependent
myocardium. Only at
superphysiological plasma concentrations was
blood flow to either region decreased. Increased PGI2
production that occurred in response to increasing doses of
ET-1 counteracted the vasoconstrictor properties of ET-1 and preserved
myocardial blood flow. Collateral vessels demonstrated a greater
dependence on PGI2 production to oppose the
vasoconstriction caused by ET-1.
|
Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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|
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This work was supported by US Public Health Service grants HL-32427, HL-20598, and HL-21872 from the NHLBI and individual National Research Service Award HL-09128 (Dr Traverse). Immunoreactive 6-keto-PGF1
assay kits were generously
provided by Solidad Callejas and Upjohn Pharmaceuticals. We gratefully
acknowledge the expert technical assistance provided by Todd Pavek,
Sara Herrlinger, Melanie Crampton, Paul Lindstrom, Marj Carlson, and
Flor Dizon. Secretarial assistance was provided by Sue Quirt. Received July 13, 1995; revision received September 21, 1995; accepted September 25, 1995.
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