(Circulation. 1995;92:2697-2704.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Combining Monophasic Action Potential Recordings With Pacing to Demonstrate Delayed Afterdepolarizations and Triggered Arrhythmias in the Intact Heart
Value of Diastolic Slope
From the Department of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University Hospital, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Correspondence to Marc A. Vos, PhD, Department of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht University Hospital Maastricht, PO Box 5800, 6206 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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Abstract |
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Background In the intact heart, methodological difficulties hamper the direct visualization of delayed afterdepolarizations (DADs) responsible for triggered arrhythmias. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that a combination of pacing and the recording of a monophasic action potential (MAP) could facilitate the recognition of ouabain-induced DADs and triggered arrhythmias by demonstrating an increase in the diastolic baseline slope (dV/dT) of the MAP recording at the end of a pacing train.
Methods and Results In anesthetized dogs with chronic atrioventricular block, a right ventricular endocardial MAP was recorded during (1) control (n=11), (2) 15 to 45 minutes after administration of ouabain (45±10 µg/kg, n=11), (3) 10 minutes after administration of lidocaine (3 mg/kg, n=5), and (4) during lidocaine washout (n=3). Pacing was performed with the MAP catheter. Also, the protocol was performed in 3 dogs with conducted sinus rhythm during control and ouabain circumstances. During control, the slope value was 2±2 mV/s (mean±SD), the incidence of DADs after the stimulation train was 6%, and no ventricular tachycardias (VTs) were induced in dogs with atrioventricular block. During ouabain administration, the slope and DAD incidences increased to, respectively, 26±14 mV/s and 74% (P<.05 for both). VTs were induced frequently. Lidocaine prevented VT induction by decreasing the slope and the incidence of DADs. This effect disappeared after lidocaine washout. During conducted sinus rhythm, similar results were found.
Conclusions By combining pacing and MAP recordings, the diastolic slope observed on MAP recordings in ouabain-intoxicated hearts can be used as a marker for DADs and triggered arrhythmias. This finding may be helpful in identifying triggered activity in the intact heart.
Key Words: arrhythmia • action potentials recordings • afterdepolarizations • electrical stimulation
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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The arrhythmogenic mechanism triggered activity consists of two subgroups: EADs or DADs.1 2 3 4 5 Although many attempts have been made to identify DADs as the cause of clinical tachycardias,6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 their relevance is still poorly understood. A direct approach could be the visualization of DADs through the recording of endocardially placed MAPs. This approach has been successfully applied in animals during (nonsustained) VTs17 18 19 20 and, more recently, during atrial tachycardias in patients.16 However, methodological difficulties still hamper the general use of this technique.21 22 To elucidate DADs as the substrate of tachycardia initiation, we hypothesized, on the basis of the frequency dependence of DADs, that their occurrence is indicated by the presence of an increase in the baseline slope (dV/dt) in the MAP recordings of the last beats of pacing. This increase in slope has been observed in action potentials recorded in isolated tissue5 before induction of (triggering) DADs. Although the slope of the ascending limb of DADs has been calculated,23 24 the slope during pacing has never been quantified. If our hypothesis is correct, it might provide a tool to identify triggered activity in the intact heart, without the necessity to induce VT.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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All experiments were performed in accordance with the "Guiding Principles in the Care and Use of Animals" as approved by the American Physiological Society and under the regulations of the Committee for Experiments on Animals of the University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
The studies were performed in 11 anesthetized dogs (mean body weight, 25±5 kg) of either sex. Complete atrioventricular block was made to exclude the interference of conducted sinus beats on ventricular arrhythmias.25 During the atrioventricular block operation, an epicardial screw-in electrode (Bakken Research Center) was placed on the apex of the left ventricle. The experiments were performed at least 2 weeks after this operation. Also, 3 anesthetized dogs with normal conducted sinus rhythm were studied.
Stimulation was done with a programmable stimulator that has a synchronizing circuit. Six surface ECG leads and one MAP recording were simultaneously registered on a monitor and stored on an optical disk. Drugs were administered through a cannula in a cephalic vein.
Anesthesia
Experiments were performed with the animals under
anesthesia and with sterile conditions. Premedication (0.2
mL/kg) was given intramuscularly with a drug mixture containing 10 mg
oxycodan HCl, 1 mg acepromazine, and 0.5 mg atropine sulfate per
milliliter. An antibiotic (1000 mg ampicillin [Amfipen] Gist
Brocades) was given preoperatively (intravenously) and
postoperatively (subcutaneously). Anesthesia was induced by
sodium pentobarbital (20 mg/kg IV). The dogs were artificially
ventilated (Pulmomat respirator, Dräger) through a cuffed
endotracheal tube with a mixture of oxygen, nitrous oxide, and
halothane (vapor concentration, 0.5% to 1.0%). Ventilation was
adjusted on the basis of continuous monitoring of the carbon dioxide
concentration of the expired air. A thermal mattress was used to
maintain body temperature around 37°C during the experiments.
Recording of MAPs
To register an endocardial MAP signal, a
quadripolar
contact electrode26 27 (Steerable Franz Combination
Catheter, EP Technologies) was placed endocardially in the right
ventricle. The 7F MAP catheter was introduced under fluoroscopy through
the femoral or external jugular vein. The MAP signals were amplified
with a customized isolated DC-coupled differential amplifier with a
20-mV calibration pulse. The offset of this amplifier is variable
and can be adjusted to the recorded signal. The MAP signals are
sampled at a rate of 1 kHz per signal.
MAP phases were divided according to the definitions used for the transmembrane action potential. Amplitude was defined as the difference between phases 4 and 2 of the signal. The minimally accepted amplitude of the MAP was 15 mV.17 18 If the MAP had a lower amplitude under baseline conditions, the catheter was moved to an adjacent side. To ensure that the recording place of the catheter could be repeatedly reached throughout the experiment, the catheter was placed at the same location at least three times before the experiment was started. This was achieved using guidance from the fluoroscopy monitor and through pace mapping with the MAP catheter.
To avoid artifacts during phase 4 of the action potential,27 rigorous attention was paid to record stable diastolic potentials. Furthermore, the MAP had to have a constant configuration and a smooth shape during control circumstances.
Experimental Protocol
A protocol was used that we routinely
use in conscious
dogs.19 28 Pacing was performed from the MAP catheter
with
a strength of twice diastolic threshold and a pulse width
of 2 milliseconds and consisted of three stimulation trains with an
interstimulus interval of 300 milliseconds and a duration of 4, 10, or
20 seconds. This resulted in three pacing trains in every dog, both
during control (11 atrioventricular block dogs and 3
sinus rhythm dogs) and during each intervention. Between these pacing
trains, sufficient time was allowed for the heart to regain its
prepacing rhythm. After control pacing, a bolus of ouabain (in relation
to body weight28 ; mean, 45±10 µg/kg) was administered
intravenously over 1 minute. Ten minutes later, this was
followed by continuous infusion of ouabain29 (mean,
0.08±0.02 µg/kg per minute) throughout the experiment. Pacing was
resumed 15 minutes after the bolus of ouabain.28
Five of the 11 atrioventricular block dogs received an intravenous bolus dose of lidocaine (3 mg/kg in 2 minutes) to reverse the ouabain effects and to exclude possible artifacts in the MAP recordings. The pacing protocol was repeated within 10 minutes after lidocaine administration. Finally, in 3 dogs, the pacing protocol was repeated once more after a washout period of lidocaine.
In 5 atrioventricular block dogs, the described pacing protocol was expanded with three pacing trains that had an interstimulus interval of 400 milliseconds and the same durations (4, 10, and 20 seconds).
Data Analysis
For off-line analysis of the recorded signals,
a
customized ECGVIEW program was used, which contains a
special module for the analysis of MAP signals on a
beat-to-beat basis. It can calculate the amplitude, duration,
and slope (dV/dt) of a selected MAP signal. Slope was calculated as the
mean rate of rise (dV/dt) of the ascending limb of the
DAD22 23 or as the mean change in diastolic
potential between the last five paced beats (Fig 1
). The
slope calculation is based on the least-squares regression line
calculation of the measured points in a selected time window. The begin
and end points of this time window are manually adjusted.
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V (change in voltage) and To relate the diastolic baseline slope to ouabain-induced DADs and triggered arrhythmias, the following parameters were quantified: (1) absolute value of the slope during pacing, (2) occurrence of DADs directly after pacing, (3) amplitude of the DAD, (4) induction, number, and coupling interval of ectopic beats, and (5) induction of VT. The presence of a DAD after pacing was defined as the occurrence of a depolarizing afterpotential with an ascending and a descending limb that begins after the complete repolarization (phase 3) of the last paced MAP.2 In some cases, the DAD follows an initial phase of hyperpolarization.2 This hyperpolarization was excluded in the analyses of DAD and in the calculation of slope, which were both determined with phase 4 of the preceding action potential as baseline. Analyses of both the amplitude and coupling interval of DADs were performed after pacing conform to methods that have been previously described.23 VT was defined as more than five ectopic beats with a coupling interval shorter than the last spontaneous prepacing idioventricular interval.28
To ensure accuracy of our analysis and guarantee uniform interpretation of the results, all experiments were analyzed twice. One of these analyses was done by an independent observer without knowledge of the experimental circumstances.
Statistical Analysis
All data are presented as
mean±SD. ANOVA followed by
Bonferroni's t test (for more than two-group
analysis), two-tailed Student's t test for
unpaired events (for two-group comparison), and
2 analysis was used to determine
statistical significance.
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Results |
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Experiments During Chronic Atrioventricular Block
Control Versus Ouabain
An almost flat slope was present during control pacing (Fig 2
); the mean calculated
value was 2±2 mV/s, and DADs
were induced in 6% of the pacing trains (Table 1).
These DADs had a mean amplitude of 0.4±0.1 mV. The postpacing
incidence of ectopic beats was 18%, with a mean±SD number of 2±1
and
a mean coupling interval of 517±186 milliseconds. VTs were not
induced.
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Ouabain administration resulted in a nonsignificant decrease
in the
spontaneous idioventricular cycle length (from
1432±377 to 1343±229 milliseconds) and a significant decrease in
MAP
amplitude (32±13 to 26±13 mV; P<.05). Slope
increased to
26±14 mV/s (P<.05), and there was an increase in incidence
and amplitude of DADs (74% and 1.0±0.6 mV; P<.05 for
both; Fig 3). Furthermore, pacing increased the
incidence of ectopic beats (85%; P<.05) and VT (33%;
P<.05; Table 1
). An example of the induction of VT
is given
in Fig 4 [1]. The number of ectopic beats increased
to
23±47, whereas their coupling interval decreased to 481±282
milliseconds. Neither was significantly different from control.
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Lidocaine and Lidocaine Washout Measurements
Lidocaine decreased the MAP amplitude to 18±7 mV
(P<.05). However, during the washout period of lidocaine,
the amplitude rose to 24±3 mV (P<.05). Lidocaine increased
the prepacing idioventricular cycle length to 1861±439
milliseconds (P<.05), which reversed during washout.
Lidocaine decreased the diastolic slope to 4±2 mV/s
(P<.05), reduced the incidence of DADs to 57%
(P<.05), reduced their mean amplitude to 0.7±0.4 mV
(P<.05), and completely prevented the occurrence of VT
(P<.05; Fig 4 [2] and Table
1). The incidence of ectopic
beats decreased to 64% (P<.05 compared with ouabain); the
number of induced beats decreased to 2±2, with an increase in the
coupling interval to 802±292 milliseconds (P<.05). After
washout of lidocaine, all parameters increased
significantly: slope to 24±7 mV/s, induced VTs to 55%, DADs to 77%
with a mean DAD amplitude of 1.1±0.2 mV, and incidence of ectopic
beats to 100% (Table 1).
Interstimulus
Interval
During control, the measured parameters did not differ
when the two interstimulus intervals were compared in the 5 dogs in
which both protocols were performed. The control slope was 2±1 mV/s,
and no DADs or VTs were induced in these dogs.
During ouabain, the
slope and the incidence of DADs and VTs increased
more markedly after pacing with an interstimulus interval of 300
milliseconds (Table 2). Also, the incidence of the
ectopic beats after a 400-millisecond pacing train was lower, and their
coupling interval was longer than after a 300-millisecond pacing train,
but this did not reach statistical significance.
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However, the amplitude of induced DADs was higher after the 400-millisecond stimulation train.
Experiments During Sinus Rhythm
Also, during sinus rhythm,
the slope remained flat (3±1 mV/s)
during control circumstances (Fig 5 [1]). There were
no DADs induced. After ouabain, both of these parameters
increased significantly: slope to 17±4 mV/s and DAD incidence to 84%
(Fig 5 [2]). The DAD coupling interval and amplitude
were 241±13
milliseconds and 1.0±0.5 mV, respectively. The sinus cycle length was
497±12 milliseconds, which decreased slightly after ouabain
administration, to 460±50 milliseconds. MAP amplitude showed a
nonsignificant decrease after ouabain (34±20 versus 27±10 mV).
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Discussion |
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The results of the present study indicate that the diastolic slope at the end of a pacing train can (1) be a marker for the ability to induce DAD-related triggered activity TA, (2) possibly be used as a diagnostic tool to identify DAD-dependent TA, and (3) be of value to quantitatively assess the effect of (pharmacological) interventions on DAD-dependent TA.
Mechanism of Arrhythmias During Ouabain
Intoxication
Partial inhibition of the
Na+/K+
pump by ouabain causes an increase in
[Na+]i
concentration that results in an increased
[Ca2+]i.3 30 31
This
[Ca2+]i overload causes the
sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+ into the
cytosol, eliciting a transient inward current
(Iti)3 30 31 32 33
that is responsible for DADs.
Proposed mechanisms underlying the Iti are a
Ca2+-activated nonspecific channel and the
Na+/Ca2+
exchanger.32 33
Identification of DAD-Dependent Triggered Activity
The
identification of DAD-related TA in patients is difficult
because most diagnostic methods are indirect or not
available for clinical use. Indirect diagnostic features
that have been used include the behavior of DAD-dependent atrial and
VTs in relation to
pacing9 10 11 16 and
termination of
DAD-dependent arrhythmias with specific pharmacological
probes.13 14 15 16 34 35 36
A more direct method that has been used
in the intact heart could be the registration of afterdepolarizations
by MAP
signals.16 17 18 19 20
However, these recordings
should be interpreted with caution21 22 because MAP
recordings are not completely identical to transmembrane
measurements. Moreover, the MAP technique still has some practical
problems, such as MAP stability, artifact registration, and selection
of the recording site with regard to site of DAD origin. To
minimize the influence of these problems in registering DADs, the
following criteria should be fulfilled: the MAP catheter should be
placed by an expert to record a stable MAP with an appropriate
shape, the equipment used to record and analyze MAP signals
must be of high quality, and DADs should be suppressed by an
intervention.
Model
The model used in the present study has been
extensively
tested and used in our laboratory in conscious
dogs.19 28 34 37 To introduce
the MAP catheter, general
anesthesia was used. Otherwise, the model remained the
same. Pacing during progressive ouabain intoxication eventually leads
to (1) the occurrence of ectopic beats, with (2) shortening of their
coupling interval and (3) the induction of VT. In these experiments,
however, we did not wait until VT was induced; this allowed us to study
the relation between the diastolic slope and the occurrence
of DADs, the induction of ectopic beats, and VT.
The Behavior of the Slope Under Different
Circumstances
The recognition of DAD-dependent TA without the
necessity to
induce sustained arrhythmias can be an important advantage when
using the MAP technique in clinical practice. It is known that pacing
can provoke DADs under specific conditions because DADs are rate
dependent.4 5 17 18 23 24 28 34 37
As described in vitro
during ouabain administration, the slope in between stimulated beats
becomes progressively more steep and the last paced beat is frequently
followed by a subthreshold DAD or a triggered action
potential.4 5 17 18 19 20 23 24
We studied this relation in dogs
with atrioventricular block. In this way, interference
of the conducted sinus beats on ventricular
arrhythmias is excluded.25 However, to ensure the
applicability of the diastolic slope during the much faster
sinus rate, the experiments were also performed in dogs with normal
atrioventricular conduction.
Our data demonstrate that in the intact globally intoxicated heart, the slope between paced stimuli might represent the presence of DADs. During control circumstances, the slope is relatively flat, although a small increase was observed during pacing. This sometimes resulted in the induction of DADs and ectopic beats but never in the generation of a series of triggered beats or VT. In conscious dogs with atrioventricular block and biventricular hypertrophy, the induction of these ectopic beats by pacing has been described previously.37
During ouabain administration, pacing resulted in a markedly increased slope that was accompanied by a higher incidence of DADs, ectopic beats, and VT. The difference in the occurrence of ventricular ectopy and occurrence of DADs (85% versus 74%) might be explained by a discrepancy between the MAP recording site and site of origin of the DAD. This phenomenon will be studied more intensively in future research.
Lidocaine is known to suppress DADs and related arrhythmias in vitro23 38 and in the intact heart.36 Although it is not a DAD-specific drug, we have used lidocaine because of its practical advances (eg, relatively short half-life and no complications). Lidocaine completely suppressed VT, which was accompanied by a decrease in slope, incidence of DADs, and ectopic beats. These changes disappeared after washout, supporting our hypothesis that the slope is a useful indicator of DADs and TA. The decreased MAP amplitude during lidocaine might be related to negative inotropic effects, considering the increase in MAP amplitude after lidocaine washout.39
In another series of experiments in which the behavior of the slope during VT was studied, we used ryanodine as the specific pharmacological probe. Thirteen minutes after administration of ryanodine (10 µg/kg in 10 minutes), all tachycardias terminated (n=5); this was accompanied by a significant decrease in slope (personal observations).
Influence of Paced Cycle Length
If the diastolic slope is
representative for DADs and TA, the slope should be
influenced by the interstimulus
interval.4 5 10 12 17 18 23 24
Under control
circumstances, no difference was seen in the slope at different pacing
rates. After ouabain administration, the slope behaved in accordance
with our hypothesis that it would be less pronounced at slower pacing
rates. A relation was found among pacing rate and incidence of DADs,
the occurrence of ectopic beats, and the induction of VT. The only
discrepancy is the amplitude of the first DAD postpacing, which is
higher after the 400-millisecond stimulation train. This is, however, a
difference caused by analysis because a direct comparison of
the two dogs that showed DADs after stimulation with both frequencies
revealed a higher DAD amplitude after the 300-millisecond stimulation
trains.
Another possible explanation for a difference in DAD amplitude could have been the occurrence of two DADs after 300-millisecond pacing and one DAD after pacing with a 400-millisecond interstimulus interval. Although the occurrence of two DADs after the 300-millisecond pacing trains was seen twice in our total group of experiments, this phenomenon was not observed in this series of five dogs.
Study Limitations
In the present study, slope was measured in
a randomly placed
right ventricular MAP recording without
consideration of the relevance of the place of origin of the DADs in
relation to the registration site. Pacing was always performed from the
MAP catheter, which also was used to register the DADs. A stable MAP
signal with a certain amplitude was considered to be of greater
importance than a search for specific sites in which DADs
occur.40 We used a globally intoxicated dog heart and do
not know to what extent our registrations of DADs are a true
manifestation of DADs at the site of origin. Other experiments are
necessary to validate our approach during the pathological
circumstances of [Ca2+]i overload,
possibly occurring in more localized areas. It should also be evaluated
in patients with idiopathic VT and atrial
tachycardia.16
In summary, the diastolic slope of the MAP recording during pacing might represent a parameter with which to evaluate the presence of DADs and TA in the intact heart. This could be demonstrated by measuring the diastolic slope during a simple pacing train in circumstances that are suspect for the occurrence of DADs, such as during ouabain intoxication. This suggests that the slope could possibly be used as a quantitative marker with which to evaluate interventions on DAD-dependent arrhythmias in both animal heart and humans.
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Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms |
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by a grant from the Wynand M. Pon Foundation, The Netherlands. We thank the Bakken Research Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands, for supplying the electrodes and the University of Limburg Technical Service (Leon Dohmen, BS) for building and maintaining the equipment.
Received May 4, 1994; revision received May 17, 1995; accepted June 8, 1995.
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