(Circulation. 1995;92:2959-2968.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Role of Transesophageal Echocardiography in the Diagnosis and Management of Traumatic Aortic Disruption
From the Department of Intensive Care (P.V., H.G.), Department of Cardiology (P.L., O.A., J.B.), and Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery (E.C.), Dupuytren Hospital, Limoges, France; Department of Cardiology, Henri Mondor Hospital (P.G.), Créteil, France; Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Edouard Herriot Hospital (J.M.V.), Lyon, France; and Department of Medicine, Section of Cardiology, University of Chicago Hospitals (R.M.L.), Chicago, Ill.
Correspondence to Philippe Vignon, MD, MC5084, University of Chicago Hospitals, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL 60637.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
Background Traumatic disruption of the aorta (TDA) is a life-threatening injury that requires rapid diagnosis and treatment. Emergency aortography, which is the current standard diagnostic imaging modality, is invasive, time-consuming, and difficult to perform in hemodynamically unstable patients with multiple trauma. We performed transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) in patients with suspected TDA to determine the diagnostic accuracy and impact on patient management of this alternative, portable imaging modality.
Methods and Results Thirty-two consecutive trauma patients (mean age, 40±16 years) with suspected TDA (violent deceleration accident and mediastinum >8 cm on admission chest x-ray) prospectively underwent a TEE examination in the emergency room. Findings during TEE were compared with those encountered during aortography, surgery, or necropsy. Two subsets of traumatic aortic injuries with distinct echocardiographic signs were observed: (1) subadventitial TDA (n=10) and (2) traumatic intimal tears (n=3). Eighteen patients had normal TEE confirmed by aortography. One 2-mm medial tear was missed by TEE (necropsy). The sensitivity and specificity of TEE for the diagnosis of subadventitial TDA were 91% and 100%, respectively. Patients with subadventitial TDA were taken to surgery immediately, whereas patients with intimal aortic tears were treated conservatively. Eighteen patients (mean age, 57±15 years) with confirmed acute aortic dissection involving the aortic isthmus were also included to establish the echocardiographic differential diagnostic criteria between this entity and TDA.
Conclusions TEE should be considered the first-line imaging modality for the evaluation of trauma patients with suspected injuries of the thoracic aorta because of its portability, safety, diagnostic accuracy, and potential impact on patient management.
Key Words: echocardiography • aorta • diagnosis • imaging
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
Acute traumatic disruption of the thoracic aorta (TDA) is a highly lethal but treatable injury that usually occurs as a result of high-speed deceleration accidents. Abrupt deceleration injuries generate shearing forces that act maximally in the region of the aortic isthmus where the mobile aortic arch becomes relatively fixed to the thoracic cage by the ligamentum arteriosum, the intercostal arteries, and the left subclavian artery.1 These anatomic considerations explain why TDA occurs in over 90% of cases involving the region of the aortic isthmus,2 defined as the aortic segment between the left subclavian and first intercostal arteries. Because the major complication of TDA is adventitial rupture, usually resulting in immediate death secondary to massive hemorrhage, only a small number of these patients live long enough to successfully undergo reparative surgery.3 Early diagnosis of TDA followed by immediate surgical repair is therefore imperative to improve current survival rates in victims involved in violent motor vehicle accidents.2
Because of their low sensitivity and specificity, screening tests such as chest x-ray4 and contrast-enhanced computed tomography5 are not sufficiently accurate to diagnose TDA. Consequently, aortography, which is currently considered the gold standard diagnostic technique in this entity, is routinely performed when patients suffering a violent deceleration injury present to the emergency room with a widened mediastinum on chest x-ray.6 Unfortunately, aortography is invasive and extremely difficult to perform in hemodynamically unstable patients with multiple trauma. Moreover, aortography usually delays the initiation of aortic surgical repair by an average of 50 to 75 minutes.7 8 Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), which can be performed easily at the patient's bedside, appears to be a rapid, safe, and accurate alternative diagnostic approach for this condition because it provides unparalleled visualization of the entire aortic isthmus.7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Accordingly, we prospectively performed TEE in consecutive patients with suspected TDA to determine the diagnostic accuracy and impact on immediate patient management of this alternative imaging modality.
|
Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
During a 24-month period, all patients admitted to our institution with (1) multisystem trauma or isolated severe blunt chest trauma associated with a violent deceleration injury due to a head-on collision and (2) widened mediastinum (>8 cm) on admission chest x-ray were prospectively enrolled into the study. TEE was always attempted during the patient's initial evaluation unless the necessary equipment and personnel were not available. Aortography, surgery, or necropsy were used to confirm or exclude the diagnosis of TDA. In each patient, the Injury Severity Score was calculated as described previously.20 Subsequently, patients were divided into those with (TDA group) and without (control trauma group) confirmed acute traumatic disruption of the thoracic aorta. To establish TEE criteria that would distinguish TDA from acute aortic dissection, consecutive patients with acute aortic dissection involving the aortic isthmus as diagnosed with use of TEE and confirmed by either aortography, surgery, or contrast-enhanced computed tomography were also enrolled into the study.
All TEE examinations were performed with use of either a 5-MHz single-plane or multiplane transducer (Hewlett-Packard SONOS 1500). Before the transesophageal examination, patients were sedated with an intravenous short-acting benzodiazepine. The TEE study included standard views of the heart followed by a complete two-dimensional and color flow mapping examination of the ascending, horizontal, and descending thoracic aorta, with particular attention to visualizing the aortic isthmus.21 With use of the multiplane TEE probe, transverse (0°) to longitudinal (90° to 125°) views of the aortic isthmus were obtained. Attempts were made to visualize the proximal innominate and left subclavian arteries by carefully examining the corresponding anatomic segments.22
TEE studies were retrospectively reviewed by an experienced observer who was blinded to both the patient's group and the results of the alternative comparative method of diagnosis. Both anteroposterior and lateral diameters of the aortic isthmus as well as thickness of either medial or intimal flaps were measured from freeze-frames by use of electronic calipers. Aortograms of trauma patients were interpreted by trained radiologists who were unaware of the echocardiographic findings.
Once the diagnosis of subadventitial TDA was established, rapid surgical repair was attempted and surgical findings were correlated with TEE results. In contrast, patients with traumatic injuries involving solely the aortic intima were managed conservatively by use of serial clinical and TEE follow-up. Complications of both TEE and aortography were recorded for each patient.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
Patients and Diagnostic Methods
Among the 115 trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit during the study period, 32 patients (25 men, 7 women) met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 14 patients constituted the TDA group (11 had subadventitial tears and 3 had intimal tears). The remaining 18 patients were included in the control trauma group (violent deceleration accident, widened mediastinum on chest x-ray, normal thoracic aorta on both aortogram and TEE examination). With the exception of 1 patient who died of associated severe head injuries, all patients in the control trauma group were discharged from the hospital. Mean age of all trauma patients was 40±16 years (mean±SD; range, 16 to 69 years old), and the mean Injury Severity Score20 was 46±24 (range, 13 to 75). Eighteen patients (15 men, 3 women) were enrolled into the aortic dissection group. Mean age of these patients was 57±15 years (range, 26 to 83 years old). According to the classification of DeBakey et al,23 12 patients suffered type I acute aortic dissections, whereas 6 sustained type III dissections (Table 1
).
|
The transesophageal,
angiographic, and anatomic
findings corresponding to the TDA group are summarized in Table
2. All traumatic aortic lesions were confined to the
region corresponding to the aortic isthmus. TEE findings (ie,
subadventitial lacerations, pseudoaneurysms, and
mediastinal hematomas) were all confirmed either during surgery or at
necropsy. No complications were encountered during TEE or
aortography.
|
Subadventitial Traumatic Aortic Disruptions
The diagnosis of
subadventitial TDA requires the presence of a
disrupted aortic wall with blood flow on both sides of the disruption.
Transesophageal two-dimensional
echocardiographic findings consisted of the presence of
an abnormal intraluminal "thick flap," usually accompanied by a
regional deformity of the aortic isthmus contour caused by the
formation of an acute localized pseudoaneurysm (Fig 1). Rupture
of the pseudoaneurysm wall,
which consists solely of the adventitial aortic layer under tension, is
responsible for the cataclysmic nature of TDA deaths. Interestingly,
despite the presence of the localized deformity, the aortic isthmus
size usually remained within the normal range (Table 2
). In
most cases,
TDA involved a large section of the aortic circumference, and the
"thick flap" that corresponds to the disrupted aortic isthmus
wall was easily detected. These flaps, which appear as thick,
protruding membranes (mean±SD, 4.2±0.8 mm), consisted of the
entire
intimal and medial aortic layers (Table 2). To distinguish this
structure from the "thin" intimal flaps noted in patients with
acute aortic dissection (mean±SD, 2.2±0.7 mm), we decided to
call the
intraluminal membranes found in TDA "medial flaps." In subtotal
subadventitial aortic disruptions (n=8), the medial flap appeared in
the transverse view as a linear structure completely traversing the
lumen of the aortic isthmus in either a vertical, oblique, or
near-horizontal manner (Fig 2), usually
corresponding to a spiral tear at surgery (Fig 3). In
longitudinal views obtained with use of the multiplane probe (n=3), the
medial flap was always near-perpendicular to the isthmus wall,
vertically traversing the entire aortic lumen (Fig 4).
In complete subadventitial aortic disruption (n=1), it appeared as an
open circle contained within the aortic lumen (Fig 5),
corresponding to a horizontal tear at surgery (Fig 3).
Regardless of
the type of aortic tear, the medial flap was usually extremely mobile
and oscillated with each cardiac contraction (Table 2). Color
flow
mapping depicted similar blood flow velocities on both sides of the
medial flap, and a mosaic of colors was always observed at the site and
vicinity of the aortic wall disruption, because of local blood flow
turbulence (Figs 2 and 4). Finally, in partial
subadventitial
disruption, the aortic tear appeared as a discontinuity of the intimal
and medial aortic layers, without evidence of an intraluminal medial
flap (Table 2). Color flow mapping demonstrated turbulent flow
entering
a pseudoaneurysm, the wall of which consisted solely of the
aortic adventitial layer (Fig 6).
|
|
|
|
|
|
All patients with
subadventitial TDA underwent successful surgical
repair with subsequent hospital discharge, with the exception of two
patients who died of associated head injuries before surgery. In one of
these patients, necropsy confirmed the TEE diagnosis of a partial
subadventitial TDA, whereas in the second patient, the anatomic
specimen demonstrated a limited 2-mm medial aortic tear with integrity
of the adventitia that was not diagnosed by TEE (Fig 7).
None of the above-mentioned echocardiographic signs
were observed in the control trauma group. As a result, TEE accurately
diagnosed the presence or absence of subadventitial TDA in every
patient, with a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 100%.
|
Traumatic Aortic Intimal Tears
Traumatic tears limited to the
aortic intima (n=3) appeared
as thin, mobile intraluminal appendages of the aortic wall, located at
or in the immediate vicinity of the aortic isthmus. Because these
lesions are too small and superficial to exert excessive pressure on
the adventitial layer, the diameters and contour of the aortic isthmus
remained unchanged (Table 2). Color flow mapping usually failed
to
demonstrate a mosaic of colors because of the absence of blood flow
turbulence surrounding the aortic intimal tear (Fig 8).
None of these echocardiographic signs were observed in
the control trauma group. Aortography failed to confirm the presence of
an intimal tear in two cases. All patients diagnosed with intimal tears
were successfully managed conservatively with serial clinical and TEE
follow-up (Table 2).
|
Mediastinal Hematomas
With the exception of two cases,
mediastinal hematomas were
noted in all patients in the TDA group (Table 2). TEE findings
associated with this injury have been described
previously.24 Interestingly, the presence of mediastinal
hematomas was also observed in seven patients (39%) in the control
trauma group and in three patients (17%) in the aortic dissection
group.
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
In the present study, we have shown that because of its safety, accuracy, and portability, TEE should be considered as the first-line imaging modality for diagnosis of TDA. On the basis of the TEE experience gathered in the present study, we will propose an alternative classification of nonpenetrating traumatic aortic injuries that could be clinically useful in determining immediate patient management. Additionally, the differential TEE diagnostic criteria between subadventitial TDA and acute aortic dissection will be highlighted.
Imaging Modalities for the Diagnosis of TDA
Currently, trauma
patients involved in violent deceleration
accidents who present with a widened mediastinum on chest x-ray
usually undergo aortography to rule out the presence of TDA. Despite
its numerous disadvantages, aortography is still widely regarded as the
gold standard imaging modality for diagnosis of
TDA.4 5 6
Several radiographic signs have been described as
indicators for performing aortography in subjects involved in abrupt
deceleration collisions who present with blunt chest
trauma.4 6 Because none of these radiographic
signs are sensitive or specific for TDA, aortography yields positive
results in only 10% to 20% of patients.4 To limit the
number of negative aortograms in patients with suspected TDA,
contrast-enhanced computed tomography has been suggested and
evaluated as a potential alternative screening procedure. Although this
imaging modality is of great diagnostic value in the
initial assessment of pleural and pulmonary injuries, this
technique has an extremely low sensitivity and specificity for the
diagnosis of major vascular traumatic lesions.5 Whereas
magnetic resonance imaging is valuable for diagnosis of acute thoracic
aortic dissection, this test requires a hemodynamically
stable and cooperative patient for its completion.25 The
need for transportation of patients who require continuous monitoring
and multiple life-support equipment and who are frequently unstable
usually precludes the performance of magnetic resonance imaging
in severely injured subjects with suspected TDA.
For these reasons,
aortography is still widely considered to be the
gold standard imaging modality for diagnosis of major
arterial injuries.4 5 6 Because
aortography
usually requires transportation of a patient with multiple injuries to
either the cardiac catheterization or radiological
suite, it has similar disadvantages in this respect to magnetic
resonance imaging. In the setting of acute trauma, aortography has a
morbidity of 10%, even in patients without TDA.6 In
addition, this invasive diagnostic test usually delays the
initiation of reparative surgery by an average of approximately 1
hour.7 8 Finally, even when reviewed by experienced
physicians, aortography may result in false-positive or
false-negative
interpretations,7 9 10 11 as
it did in two
patients in our study (Table 2).
Transthoracic
echocardiography has been described infrequently as being
useful in the assessment of blunt trauma to the chest, mainly because
this technique does not provide optimal visualization of the aortic
isthmus.26 27 Because of the close anatomic proximity
between the esophagus and the descending thoracic aorta, TEE provides
high-resolution images of the aortic isthmus.21 Since
no false-positive diagnoses of TDA were encountered in the
present study, TEE had a specificity of 100%. The sensitivity of
TEE was 91% because in one case, a small, 2-mm medial aortic rupture
with integrity of the adventitial layer was seen at necropsy but was
missed by TEE (Fig 7). Our results are in agreement with those
of
Kearney et al7 and Smith et al.8
Differential Diagnosis With Aortic Dissection and
Atherosclerotic Lesions
Because traumatic aortic dissection may occur
secondary to chest
trauma at any age,28 it is crucial to establish the
differential echocardiographic diagnostic
criteria between the latter and subadventitial TDA (Table 3).
The medial flap observed in subtotal and complete
subadventitial disruptions is mobile and therefore may be erroneously
diagnosed as the intimal flap of aortic dissection.17 In
the present study, the thickness of the medial flap associated with
TDA was significantly greater than that noted in aortic dissection
(4.2±0.8 mm versus 2.2±0.7 mm: P<.001, t
test)
(Figs 1 and 5). However, this differential
diagnostic
criteria should be used with caution, since cleavage of the media by a
dissecting hematoma may occur at variable depths, resulting, at
times, in thicker intraluminal flaps (Table 1). Additionally,
the
mobility of the medial flap was consistently greater than that
noted in intimal flaps of aortic dissections (Table 2). In the
longitudinal view, the intimal flap was always parallel to the isthmus
wall (n=14) because, in all cases, the dissection extended toward
either the aortic arch or the descending aorta. In contrast, the medial
flap of TDA was always perpendicular to the aortic isthmus wall and
traversed the entire aortic lumen (Fig 4). Whereas in TDA the
aortic
contour was generally deformed because of formation of a localized
pseudoaneurysm, in aortic dissection the isthmus was
usually enlarged in a symmetrical manner (Table 1). Although
mediastinal hematomas were unusual in patients with acute aortic
dissection, they were commonly encountered in trauma patients, even in
the absence of TDA, because of associated laceration of small
mediastinal vessels.
|
Interestingly, the most important differential
echocardiographic sign was that the intraluminal image
of the disrupted aorta did not result in two distinct channels, as is
usually seen in aortic dissection. Consequently, blood flow velocity as
evaluated by color Doppler mapping was similar on both sides of the
medial flap. Conversely, in aortic dissection, blood flow velocity was
slower in the false lumen when compared with the true lumen (Figs
1 and 5). Moreover, whereas the presence of an
unorganized thrombus in the
false lumen was observed in 28% of aortic dissection cases (Table
1),
the latter finding was not observed in TDA and has been reported only
exceptionally after a trauma episode.10 29 Partial
subadventitial disruptions appeared as a discontinuity of the isthmus
wall and could be diagnosed erroneously as the entry tear commonly
observed in aortic dissection. Distinctively, the aortic wall tear of
partial subadventitial disruption was wider than the entry tears of
aortic dissection observed in the region of the isthmus, and its
appendages were more mobile than the intimal flap (Fig 6).
Additionally, in the case of partial disruption, color Doppler
mapping depicted turbulent blood flow in systole entering a
pseudoaneurysm, as reported previously,15 16
whereas in aortic dissection, blood flow at times was noted entering
the false lumen via the entry tear (Fig 9). Finally,
ultrasonographic
findings in TDA, regardless of its anatomic type, were confined to the
region of the aortic isthmus,14 whereas in aortic
dissection, TEE findings are more extensive.25
|
Protuberant
intimal atherosclerotic plaques or pedunculated thrombus
could also be misdiagnosed as traumatic aortic intimal tears (Fig
8).
However, atherosclerotic lesions are extensive and usually exhibit
calcifications.
Correlation Between Echocardiographic and Anatomic
Findings: Potential Impact on Patient Management
In 1958, Parmley et
al3 classified nonpenetrating
traumatic aortic injuries into six categories on the basis of anatomic
specimens obtained from necropsy cases of traumatic injuries of the
heart and aorta: (1) intimal hemorrhage; (2) intimal
hemorrhage with laceration; (3) medial laceration; (4) complete
laceration of the aorta; (5) false aneurysm formation; and (6)
periaortic hemorrhage. Using the anatomic classification of
Parmley et al and our TEE findings, we encountered four distinct types
of traumatic aortic injuries.
Traumatic aortic intimal tears. In these lesions, the
integrity of the aortic medial and adventitial layers is preserved
(type 2 lesion by the classification of Parmley et al3 ).
Associated TEE features are described in Table 2 and shown in
Fig 8.
The true incidence of traumatic aortic intimal tears is probably
underestimated currently because they usually remain undetected by
aortography (Table 2).10 Because these lesions
appear to
regress spontaneously,10 30 31
conservative management
with use of serial clinical and TEE follow-up is proposed. This
therapeutic alternative was successful in all three of our cases, as
confirmed by TEE follow-up that depicted regression (n=2) or lack
of extension (n=1) of these lesions (Table 2).
Subadventitial traumatic aortic disruptions involve the entire aortic intimal and medial layers. In these lesions, the threat of adventitial rupture causing massive hemorrhage is constantly present. Depending on the extent of the traumatic aortic wall tear, we encountered three distinct types of TEE findings.
Subtotal aortic disruption. These lesions involve more
than
two thirds of the aortic wall circumference. A narrow band of aortic
wall, usually found in the posterior aspect of the aorta, secured the
disrupted aortic segments a few centimeters apart (Figs 2 and
3). In
the current series, most of the subtotal aortic tears were spiral
(Table 2).
Complete aortic disruption.
These lesions involve the entire
aortic circumference (Figs 3 and 5). In the
present study, in both
subtotal and complete subadventitial aortic disruptions, medial flaps
were always observed. The presence of a subadventitial complete
horizontal disruption was associated with a circular pattern of the
medial flap, whereas the medial flap was linear in cases of subtotal
lacerations (Table 2).
Partial aortic disruption. These injuries appear as a
limited discontinuity of both intimal and medial layers. They can be
associated with (Fig 6) or without pseudoaneurysm
formation.7 Because of resolution limitations of currently
available ultrasonic imaging equipment, partial aortic
disruptions may remain undiagnosed (Fig 7).
Because patients with subadventitial aortic disruptions may die suddenly secondary to a rupture of the aortic adventitial layer, these patients should be considered for immediate surgical repair. In this study, three hemodynamically unstable patients were sent for immediate reparative surgery solely on the basis of TEE findings, thus avoiding the delay associated with aortography. However, in particular circumstances, delayed reparative surgery has been proposed.32
Study Limitations
Despite its relatively small size, this
series constitutes the
first detailed description of TEE findings associated with different
anatomic types of traumatic aortic injuries and establishes the
echocardiographic differential diagnostic
criteria for acute aortic dissection. Since conservative management was
instituted for patients who sustained traumatic aortic intimal tears,
no surgical confirmation was readily available for those lesions.
Accordingly, these patients were not included in the calculation of the
diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of TEE in TDA. The
successful management of our patients on the basis of TEE findings has
yet to be confirmed by other investigators.
The aortic isthmus can be visualized adequately by use of both single-plane and multiplane TEE transducers.21 22 Because all aortic ruptures in this study were confined to this region, the diagnosis was made correctly despite the frequent use (44% of trauma patients) of single-plane TEE probes. However, since TDA may occasionally occur in regions that are better imaged with multiplane scopes, such as the distal ascending aorta,28 33 we recommend using the multiplane probe whenever possible. Moreover, we found that the additional views obtained with multiplane TEE probes are particularly useful in determining the length of subadventitial aortic disruption and in ruling out the presence of traumatic intimal tears. Until further experience becomes available, aortography is still required when lacerations of either the aortic arch or the supra-aortic arteries are suspected. Similarly, aortography should also be performed whenever TEE findings are equivocal for the diagnosis of TDA.34 In the future, intravascular sonography could become an additional useful diagnostic tool.35 36
Conclusions
This study demonstrates that TEE can be performed
safely in the
setting of patients who have sustained severe blunt chest trauma,
resulting in clinical information that can be used for determining the
immediate management of patients. Because of its accuracy, portability,
and safety, TEE is better suited than aortography as the first-line
imaging modality for evaluation of patients with multiple trauma and
suspected acute TDA.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
We gratefully thank Dr Marc Laskar for his surgical skills. The technical assistance of Dr Bruno Franck is gratefully acknowledged. We are also indebted to Dr Daniel Krauss, Dr Athena Poppas, and the cardiac sonographers and nurses of the noninvasive cardiac imaging laboratories of the University of Chicago hospitals for their cooperation and encouragement during the study.
Received June 30, 1994; revision received June 1, 1995; accepted July 5, 1995.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
|---|
1. Eagle KA, De Sanctis RW. Diseases of the aorta. In: Braunwald E, ed. Heart Disease. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1992:1528-1557.
2. Kodali S, Jamieson WRE, Leia-Stephens M, Miyagishima RT, Janusz MT, Tyers GFO. Traumatic rupture of the thoracic aorta: a 20-year review—1969-1989. Circulation. 1991;(suppl III):III-40-III-46.
3. Parmley LF, Mattingly TW, Manion WC, Jahnke EJ. Nonpenetrating traumatic injury of the aorta. Circulation. 1958;17:1086-1101. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
4. Mirvis SE, Bidwell JK, Buddemeyer EU, Diaconis JN, Pais SO, Whitley JE. Imaging diagnosis of traumatic aortic rupture: a review and experience at a major trauma center. Invest Radiol. 1987;22:187-196. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
5. Miller FB, Richardson JD, Thomas HA, Cryer HM, Willing SJ. Role of CT in diagnosis of major arterial injury after blunt thoracic trauma. Surgery. 1989;106:596-603. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
6. Kram HB, Wohlmuth DA, Appel PL, Schoemaker WC. Clinical and radiographic indications for aortography in blunt chest trauma. J Vasc Surg. 1987;6:168-176. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
7. Kearney PA, Smith DW, Johnson SB, Barker DE, Smith MD, Sapin PM. Use of transesophageal echocardiography in the evaluation of traumatic aortic injury. J Trauma. 1993;34:696-701. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8.
Smith MD, Cassidy JM, Souther S, Morris EJ, Sapin PM,
Johnson SB, Kearney PA. Transesophageal
echocardiography in the diagnosis of traumatic
rupture of the aorta. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:356-362.
9.
Sparks MB, Burchard KW, Marrin CAS, Bean CHG, Nugent
WC, Plehn JF. Transesophageal
echocardiography: preliminary results in patients
with traumatic aortic rupture. Arch Surg. 1991;126:711-714.
10. Brooks SW, Young JC, Cmolik B, Schina M, Dianzumba S, Townsend RN, Diamond DL. The use of transesophageal echocardiography in the evaluation of chest trauma. J Trauma. 1992;32:761-765. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
11. Moloney JF, Duffy CI, Plehn JF. Transesophageal echocardiographic findings in severe blunt chest trauma. Circulation. 1991;84(suppl II):II-128. Abstract.
12. Chirillo F, Totis O, Cavarzerani A, Bruni A, Cuzzato V. Assessment of severe blunt chest trauma by transesophageal echocardiography. Eur Heart J. 1992;13:286. Abstract.
13. Brooks SW, Cmolik BL, Young JC, Townsend RN, Diamond DL. Transesophageal echocardiographic examination of a patient with traumatic aortic transection from blunt chest trauma: a case report. J Trauma. 1991;31:841-845. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
14. Galvin IF, Black IW, Lee CL, Horton DA. Transesophageal echocardiography in acute aortic transection. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;51:310-311. [Abstract]
15. Locke TJ, Reeder GS, Khandheria BK, McGregor CGA. Diagnosis of traumatic aortic rupture by transesophageal echocardiography. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1991;101:555-556. Letter. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
16.
De Belder A, Thomas M, Marrinan M. Traumatic
rupture of the thoracic aorta diagnosed by
transesophageal
echocardiography. Br Heart J. 1993;70:393-394.
17. Goarin JP, Le Bret F, Riou B, Jacquens Y, Viars P. Early diagnosis of traumatic aortic rupture by transesophageal echocardiography. Chest. 1993;103:618-619.
18. Wolfenden H, Newman DC. Transesophageal echocardiography: an increasing role in the diagnosis of traumatic aortic rupture. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1993;106:757-760. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
19. Snow CC, Appelbe AF, Martin TD, Martin RP. Diagnosis of aortic transection by transesophageal echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1992;5:100-102. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
20. Baker SP, O'Neil B. The injury severity score: an update. J Trauma. 1976;16:882-885. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
21. Seward JB, Khandheria BK, Oh JK, Abel MD, Hughes RW, Edwards WD, Nichols BA, Freeman WK, Tajik AJ. Transesophageal echocardiography: technique, anatomic correlations, implementation, and clinical applications. Mayo Clin Proc. 1988;63:649-680. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
22. Pandian NG, Hsu TL, Schwartz SL, Weintraub A, Cao QL, Schneider AT, Gordon G, England M, Simonetti J. Multiplane transesophageal echocardiography: imaging planes, echocardiographic anatomy, and clinical experience with a prototype phased-array omniplane probe. Echocardiography. 1992;9:649-966. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
23. DeBackey ME, Henly WS, Cooley DA, Morris GC Jr, Crawford ES, Beall AC Jr. Surgical management of dissecting aneurysms of the aorta. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1965;49:130-149.
24.
Le Bret F, Ruel P, Rosier H, Goarin JP, Riou B, Viars
P. Diagnosis of traumatic mediastinal hematoma with
transesophageal
echocardiography. Chest. 1994;105:373-376.
25.
Nienaber CA, Von Kodolitsch Y, Nicolas V, Siglow V,
Piepho A, Brockhoff C, Koschyk DH, Spielmann RP. The diagnosis
of thoracic aortic dissection by noninvasive imaging
procedures. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1-9.
26. Karalis DG, Victor MF, Davis GA, Mc Allister MPJ, Covalesky VA, Ross JJ, Foley RV, Kerstein MD, Chandrasekaran K. The role of echocardiography in blunt chest trauma: a transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiographic study. J Trauma. 1994;36:53-58. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
27.
Moya JL, De Pablo C, Sanchez M, Barrios V, Fraj J,
Asin-Cardiel E. Traumatic rupture of aorta: diagnosis by
Doppler echocardiography.
Chest. 1990;98:1016-1017.
28. Fisher RG, Hadlock F, Ben-Menachem Y. Laceration of the thoracic aorta and brachiocephalic arteries by blunt trauma. Radiol Clin North Am. 1981;19:91-110. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
29. Davis GA, Sauerisen S, Chandrasekaran K, Karalis DG, Ross J, Mintz GS. Subclinical traumatic aortic injury diagnosed by transesophageal echocardiography. Am Heart J. 1992;123:534-536. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
30. Wigle RL, Moran JM. Spontaneous healing of a traumatic thoracic aortic tear: case report. J Trauma. 1991;31:280-283. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
31. Shapiro MJ, Yanofsky SD, Trapp J, Durham RM, Labovitz A, Sear JE, Barth CW, Pearson AC. Cardiovascular evaluation in blunt thoracic trauma using transesophageal echocardiography. J Trauma. 1991;31:835-839. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
32. Akins CW, Buckley MJ, Daggett W, McIlduff JB, Austen WG. Acute traumatic disruption of the thoracic aorta: a ten-year experience. Ann Thorac Surg. 1981;31:305-309. [Abstract]
33. Williams JS, Graff JA, Uku JM, Steinig JP. Aortic injury in vehicular trauma. Ann Thorac Surg. 1994;57:726-730. [Abstract]
34.
Vlahakes GJ, Warren RL. Traumatic rupture of the
aorta. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:389-390.
35. Read RA, Moore EE, Moore FA, Havernek EP, Veerakul G, Mestek M, Nademanee K. Intravascular ultrasonography for the diagnosis of traumatic aortic disruption: a case report. Surgery. 1993;114:624-628. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
36.
Williams DM, Simon HJ, Marx MV, Starkey TD.
Acute traumatic aortic rupture: intravascular US
findings. Radiology. 1992;182:247-249.
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  G. Nicolaou Endovascular Treatment of Blunt Traumatic Thoracic Aortic Injury Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, June 1, 2009; 13(2): 106 - 112. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. Mahmood, A. Christie, and R. Matyal Transesophageal Echocardiography and Noncardiac Surgery Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, December 1, 2008; 12(4): 265 - 289. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Chumnanvej, M. J. Wood, T. E. MacGillivray, and M. F. V. Melo Perioperative Echocardiographic Examination for Ventricular Assist Device Implantation Anesth. Analg., September 1, 2007; 105(3): 583 - 601. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Van Dantzig Echocardiography in the Emergency Department Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, March 1, 2006; 10(1): 79 - 81. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. D. Cheitlin, W. F. Armstrong, G. P. Aurigemma, G. A. Beller, F. Z. Bierman, J. L. Davis, P. S. Douglas, D. P. Faxon, L. D. Gillam, T. R. Kimball, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 guideline update for the clinical application of echocardiography: summary article: a report of the American college of cardiology/American heart association task force on practice guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE committee to update the 1997 guidelines for the clinical application of echocardiography) J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., September 3, 2003; 42(5): 954 - 970. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. D. Cheitlin, W. F. Armstrong, G. P. Aurigemma, G. A. Beller, F. Z. Bierman, J. L. Davis, P. S. Douglas, D. P. Faxon, L. D. Gillam, T. R. Kimball, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 Guideline Update for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography: Summary Article: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE Committee to Update the 1997 Guidelines for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography) Circulation, September 2, 2003; 108(9): 1146 - 1162. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 I. A. Khan and C. K. Nair Clinical, Diagnostic, and Management Perspectives of Aortic Dissection* Chest, July 1, 2002; 122(1): 311 - 328. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. G. Karalis, B. J. Tortella, and K. Chandrasekaran Role of Transesophageal Echocardiography in Blunt Chest Trauma Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, June 1, 2002; 6(2): 149 - 163. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Erbel, F. Alfonso, C. Boileau, O. Dirsch, B. Eber, A. Haverich, H. Rakowski, J. Struyven, K. Radegran, U. Sechtem, et al. Diagnosis and management of aortic dissection: Task Force on Aortic Dissection, European Society of Cardiology Eur. Heart J., September 2, 2001; 22(18): 1642 - 1681. [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Vignon, K. T. Spencer, G. Rambaud, P.-M. Preux, D. Krauss, B. Balasia, and R. M. Lang Differential Transesophageal Echocardiographic Diagnosis Between Linear Artifacts and Intraluminal Flap of Aortic Dissection or Disruption Chest, June 1, 2001; 119(6): 1778 - 1790. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. J. Willens and K. M. Kessler Transesophageal Echocardiography in the Diagnosis of Diseases of the Thoracic Aorta* : Part II--Atherosclerotic and Traumatic Diseases of the Aorta Chest, January 1, 2000; 117(1): 233 - 243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Laperche, C. Laurian, R. Roudaut, P. G. Steg, and f. t. F. E. d. l. S. F. de Cardiologie Mobile Thromboses of the Aortic Arch Without Aortic Debris : A Transesophageal Echocardiographic Finding Associated With Unexplained Arterial Embolism Circulation, July 1, 1997; 96(1): 288 - 294. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. D. Lick, J. B. Zwischenberger, W. J. Mileski, and M. Ahmad Torn Ascending Aorta Missed by Transesophageal Echocardiography Ann. Thorac. Surg., June 1, 1997; 63(6): 1768 - 1770. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. D. Trachiotis, J. E. Sell, G. D. Pearson, G. R. Martin, and F. M. Midgley Traumatic Thoracic Aortic Rupture in the Pediatric Patient Ann. Thorac. Surg., September 1, 1996; 62(3): 724 - 731. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Poppas, R. Sawyer, C. Kinder, P. Vignon, J. Bednarz, B. K. Lee, T. Feldman, S. Glagov, and R. M. Lang A 73-Year-Old Man With Hypertension and Syncope Circulation, January 15, 1996; 93(2): 380 - 386. [Full Text]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||