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(Circulation. 1995;91:2010-2017.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.

Articles

Beat-to-Beat Analysis of Left Ventricular Pressure-Volume Relation and Stroke Volume by Conductance Catheter and Aortic Modelflow in Cardiomyoplasty Patients

J.J. Schreuder, MD, PhD; F.H. van der Veen, PhD; E.T. van der Velde, PhD; F. Delahaye, MD; O. Alfieri, MD; O. Jegaden, MD; R. Lorusso, MD; J.R.C. Jansen, PhD; V. van Ommen, MD; G. Finet, MD; H.J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD

From the departments of Anesthesiology and Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands (J.J.S., F.H.v.d.V., V.v.O., H.J.J.W.); the Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Leiden, The Netherlands (E.T.v.d.V.); the Departments of Cardiac Surgery and Cardiology, Lyon, France (F.D., O.J., G.F.); the Department of Cardiac Surgery, Ospedale Civile, Brescia, Italy (O.A., R.L.); and the Department of Pulmonary Diseases, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands (J.R.C.J.).

Correspondence to J.J. Schreuder, MD, PhD, Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital Maastricht, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.

	Abstract

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Background Since the clinical introduction of dynamic cardiomyoplasty, a discrepancy has been observed between unchanged measurements of cardiac function and improved clinical outcome.

Methods and Results We performed a beat-to-beat analysis of cardiac performance at rest in nine cardiomyoplasty patients 6 to 24 months after operation. Conductance and micromanometer catheters were placed in left ventricle and aorta and used for measurements over a 15-second period, during which the wrapped latissimus dorsi (LD) muscle was stimulated for 10 seconds in a 1:2 synchronization mode followed by a 5-second period without LD stimulation. The synchronization delay between start of the QRS complex and the LD contraction was changed from 4 up to 125 ms at the patient's clinical stimulation strength and at an increased supramaximal amplitude. Comparing the LD assisted period to the unassisted period, at the clinical settings no significant changes in stroke volume (SV) as measured by the conductance technique and the aortic Modelflow technique were observed. A significant (P<.05) rise in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) was observed directly after the assisted 10-second period. The peak ejection rate (PER) of left ventricular volume increased (P<.05), with a mean of 28±23% during the LD stimulated beats. At the patient's individual best setting, SV of the stimulated beats increased (P<.01) by a mean of 20±15%. Systolic aortic pressure increased (P<.01) by a mean of 7 mm Hg, peak negative dP/dt increased (P<.01), and PER increased, with a mean of 68±24% (P<.01). LVEDP was similar in stimulated and unstimulated beats and increased (P<.05) in the nonpaced 5-second period. The delay for the best setting ranged from 25 to 125 ms; the stimulus strength was 1.5 to 3 V higher than the clinical setting. At the patient's individual worst setting, SV remained unchanged and PER was higher, with a mean of 30±25% (P<.05). The worst setting was observed at the 1.5- to 3-V-higher stimulus strength; in six patients, it was at a short delay (4 to 25 ms) and in three patients, at the longest delay (100 to 125 ms).

Conclusions By the left ventricular conductance catheter and aortic Modelflow methods, improvement in cardiac function by dynamic cardiomyoplasty was demonstrated in this patient group. The synchronization interval, stimulus strength, and stimulus duration appeared to be critical for obtaining optimal improvement.

Key Words: pressure • stroke volume • ventricles • diastole • electrophysiology

	Introduction

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Since the clinical introduction of dynamic cardiomyoplasty by Carpentier and Chachques in 1985,¹ several studies have reported a discrepancy between clinical outcome and hemodynamic measurements. Whereas clinical improvements according to the New York Heart Association (NYHA) classification^{2 3 4} were observed in a majority of patients, cardiac output improvement could be demonstrated in only a minority.^{3 4} In these studies, preoperative patient data were compared with postoperative data.

To elucidate whether dynamic cardiomyoplasty affects cardiac function, analysis of individual cardiac contractions with and without skeletal muscle stimulation should be performed. Some studies, which measured ventricular ejection fraction by echocardiography or by radionuclide angiography, demonstrated an increase in the ejection fraction due to skeletal muscle cardiac assistance^{3 4} ; another study reported no change.²

The absence of changes in cardiac output or ejection fraction in patients who clinically improved may have several causes.

First, the resolution of the techniques used may have been too small in relation to the magnitude of the hemodynamic changes induced by the wrapped latissimus dorsi (LD) muscle contraction.⁵

Second, inappropriate synchronization and stimulation settings of the cardiomyostimulator in relation to cardiac contraction may negatively affect cardiac function. For instance, a decrease in stroke volume (SV) was demonstrated in an animal study when LD muscle was stimulated during ventricular depolarization.⁶ In another animal study,⁷ increases in SV were demonstrated at an optimal individual synchronization delay range. A follow-up study of 78 cardiomyoplasty patients reported that fixed synchronization delays equally divided in a range from 4 to 125 ms were applied.⁸

Third, cardiovascular compensatory mechanisms may counteract possible positive effects of LD muscle stimulation when an appropriate output state in the patient has been attained. When the heart as a pump is not the limiting factor in providing adequate organ perfusion, a condition that occurs in most of these patients at rest, an increase in contractility will not result in an increase in cardiac output.

Last, a decrease or prevention of acute or chronic ventricular dilatation may be a major beneficial mechanism associated with dynamic cardiomyoplasty.⁹

To evaluate these possible mechanisms, we studied the acute, direct hemodynamic effects of skeletal muscle stimulation, on a beat-to-beat basis, in nine patients at rest several months after operation. The conductance catheter technique introduced by Baan et al¹⁰ was used to measure left ventricular volume instantaneously. The aortic Modelflow method according to Wesseling et al¹¹ was used to measure left ventricular SV.

The hemodynamic effects of cardiomyoplasty were studied during periods of 10-second LD muscle stimulation performed at varied synchronization delays after ventricular activation followed by periods of 5 seconds without LD muscle stimulation. The measurements were carried out at two different LD stimulation strengths: at the previously chosen clinical amplitude and at an increased supramaximal amplitude to obtain complete muscle fiber recruitment.

	Methods

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Patients
Nine male patients, 53 to 69 years old, who had undergone dynamic cardiomyoplasty surgery were studied. All patients had dilated cardiomyopathy, related either to ischemia or to an idiopathic origin (Table 1). At the time of the cardiomyoplasty procedure, all patients were in NYHA class III, with a mean radionuclide ejection fraction of 20±8%.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 1. Clinical Characteristics of the Nine Cardiomyoplasty Patients

Cardiomyoplasty Procedure
Of the nine patients studied, six had been operated on in Lyon (France) and three in Brescia (Italy). The surgical technique has been described by Chachques et al.¹² Briefly, the left LD muscle was mobilized, with the neurovascular pedicle kept intact. After two intramuscular stimulation electrodes (Medtronic SP 5528) were attached, the muscle was introduced into the thoracic cavity and wrapped clockwise around both ventricles. The stimulation electrodes and a sensing electrode attached to the right ventricular wall were connected to a cardiomyostimulator (SP1005, Medtronic). Additional surgery involved aneurysmectomy in two patients and coronary artery bypass graft surgery in three (Table 1).

Postoperative Evaluation
This study, which had been approved by the medical ethics committees of the respective hospitals, was performed 6 to 24 months after the cardiomyoplasty procedure. Informed patient consent was obtained for insertion of the catheters and for testing at different settings of the cardiomyostimulator.

Patients were sedated and heparinized before catheterization. A Swan-Ganz thermodilution catheter was placed in the pulmonary artery. A double micromanometer transducer catheter (7.5F, Sentron) was inserted via the femoral artery into the left ventricle for the measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressures.

A 12-electrode (dual-field) conductance catheter (7.5F, Webster Labs or 7F, Sentron) was inserted via the other femoral artery into the left ventricle. The correct positioning of the conductance catheter was verified by radiography and by inspection of the segmental conductance signals. In two patients (patients 1 and 2), a 2F micromanometer catheter (Millar Instruments, Inc) was inserted inside the ventricular lumen of the conductance catheter, while aortic pressure was measured by a separate micromanometer catheter (5F, Sentron).

The conductance catheter method uses a Leycom Sigma-5DF signal conditioner–processor (CardioDynamics) to estimate left ventricular volume.^{10 13} The method is based on measuring the time-varying electrical conductances of five segments of blood in the left ventricle. The five segmental conductances are measured from six adjacent electrodes, and total left ventricular volume is calculated from the sum of the five segmental conductances. The dual-field modification, which has been shown to improve the accuracy of the method, was used in all patients.¹⁴ The conductance catheter not only continuously measures the amount of blood in the left ventricle but also the conductance of the myocardium and other surrounding tissues. This parallel conductance offset term was estimated by injection of 5 mL of hypertonic saline (8%) into the pulmonary artery¹⁰ without LD stimulation. In three patients, parallel conductance was also estimated during LD stimulation at the highest voltage. Effects of LD stimulation on regional contraction patterns could be studied from the five segmental conductance catheter segments.¹⁵

We did not attempt to estimate ventricular function by end-systolic elastance or preload recruitable stroke work in these patients, because this requires a change in loading conditions.¹⁶ This was not applied in this group of patients because preoperative conductance catheter and Modelflow measurements were not performed. However, the end-systolic pressure-volume (P-V) points as markers of ventricular performance can be derived from the P-V relations. Moreover, peak ejection rate (PER, negative dV/dt_max) was calculated from the ventricular volume signal as a measure of ventricular pump function analogous to the velocity of circumferential shortening.¹⁷

The aortic Modelflow method computes relative SV from aortic pressure using a nonlinear, time-varying three-element Windkessel model.¹¹ The model elements include aortic characteristic impedance, arterial compliance, and systemic vascular resistance. The aortic characteristic impedance and arterial compliance depend on the aortic cross-sectional area, which can be estimated from mean arterial pressure, age, and sex.¹⁸ To adapt this estimate of cross-sectional area to that of the individual patient, Modelflow was calibrated by cardiac output measured by thermodilution.

To obtain reliable estimates of cardiac output by thermodilution, a computer-controlled injection system was used.^{19 20} Cardiac output was determined by use of a cardiac output computer (COM-2, Baxter) and injections of 10 mL ice-cold glucose 5%.

Data Acquisition and Analysis
ECG (extremity leads), aortic pressure, left ventricular pressure, and left ventricular volume signals were digitized at a sampling rate of 200 Hz on a 80386 personal computer. The dedicated data-acquisition and -analysis software package CONDUCT-PC (CardioDynamics) was applied for conductance catheter–related data analysis. The continuous cardiac output software package Modelflow (TNO Biomedical Instrumentation, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) was applied for calculation of left ventriuclar stroke volume.

Experimental Protocol
After insertion of the catheters, baseline measurements were performed with the LD stimulator off. Blood resistance and parallel conductance were measured before baseline measurements. Episodes of 15 seconds' duration were recorded while the patients performed expiratory breath-holding to prevent respiration-related changes in venous return. The LD stimulator was synchronized in a 1:2 ratio during the first 10 seconds leading to one assisted beat for every two ventricular contractions, immediately followed by a nonpaced episode of 5 seconds after blocking of the LD stimulator.

The LD stimulation protocol started with the patient's clinical setting, at a burst rate of 30 Hz, a burst duration of 185 ms, an individual stimulus strength between 3 and 8 V, and an individual delay synchronized to the QRS complex.

Stimulation was performed at delays of 4, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 ms. This series was then repeated at a 1.5- to 3-V-higher supramaximal stimulus strength. Whenever an obvious best setting was observed during the measurements, this stimulator setting was repeated at a stimulus duration of 240 ms. Comparisons were made between LD assisted beats and nonassisted beats of the 10-second period and beats of the nonpaced 5-second period.

Statistical analysis was done with Student's test for paired variates; comparison between three data groups was also performed with randomized block ANOVA. Values are presented as mean±SD; significance was assumed at P<.05.

	Results

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The mean duration of the catheterization procedure including the experimental study was 105±10 minutes. Occasionally, ectopic beats were observed during the introduction of the catheters and during the study protocol at higher stimulation amplitudes and the longest delays.

The study group originally consisted of 13 patients. In 2 patients, arrhythmic cardiac contractions prevented a proper analysis of the P-V loops; another patient had Valsalva maneuvers during the 15-second sample periods; and in 1 patient, the conductance catheter signals were not suitable for proper analysis. In all these cases, however, SV estimations by Modelflow revealed changes due to LD stimulation similar to those in the other 9 patients.

The mean duration of the breath-holding episodes was 15±2 seconds. A baseline cardiac index ranging from 1.4 up to 3.0 L/min was observed without cardiomyostimulation (Table 1).

Fig 1 shows representative recordings of the conductance catheter of patient 7. The stimulated beats revealed a decrease in end-systolic volume and an increase in SV compared with unstimulated beats, and concomitant higher systolic aortic pressures. Fig 2 shows left ventricular segmental volume changes of patient 1, and the contribution of specific segments to the total increase in SV can be studied.

View larger version (30K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Tracings of left ventricular volume (Vlv), aortic pressure (Pao), and ECG during a 17-second sampling period with five skeletal muscle contractions.

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Tracings of four left ventricular volume segments from patient 1. Bottom line represents total left ventricular volume (Vlv) in time. Dotted lines indicate start and end of the ejection phase.

In three patients, the parallel conductance was similar during LD stimulation (234±28 mL) and without LD stimulation (230±27 mL).

Table 2 presents the results of nine patients at their clinically used LD stimulator setting. Mean SV determined by the Modelflow method (SV_mf) and the conductance catheter method (SV_con) of the stimulated beats both increased (P<.05), with a mean of 3% compared with the unstimulated beats in between. Mean SV of the nonpaced 5-second period was not significantly changed compared with the mean SV of the earlier 10-second 1:2 stimulated period. Systolic aortic pressure, dP/dt_max, and end-systolic volume remained unchanged during the LD stimulation period. Left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) was similar in the stimulated and unstimulated beats and increased (P<.05) in the subsequent nonpaced 5-second period. End-systolic volume, dP/dt_max, remained unchanged during LD stimulation. Peak negative dP/dt was higher (P<.05) in the stimulated beats compared with the alternating unstimulated beats (during the 10-second LD stimulated period) and unchanged compared with the nonpaced period. PER was higher, with a mean of 28±23% (P<.05) during the stimulated beats compared with the unstimulated beats of both periods. The clinically used delays were at 25 and 50 ms, and stimulus strengths ranged from 4 to 9 V.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 2. Hemodynamic Data of the Clinical Setting

Table 3 presents the results of the nine patients at the individual best setting. The best and the worst settings were defined as largest and smallest increases in SV due to LD stimulation as measured by both the Modelflow and conductance methods at the higher applied stimulus strength.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 3. Hemodynamic Data of the Best Setting

At the patient's best setting, SV_mf and SV_con increased significantly (P<.01) during LD stimulation compared with the alternating unstimulated beats. The SV poststimulated period was significantly lower (P<.01), with a mean of 8% compared with the preceding 1:2 stimulated 10-second period. Systolic aortic pressure was higher (P<.01) during LD stimulation, with a mean of 7 mm Hg, whereas diastolic pressure was lower (P<.01), with a mean of 2 mm Hg. Left ventricular end-systolic volume decreased in eight patients during LD stimulation, while end-diastolic volume was unchanged in four patients, slightly increased in four patients (patients 3, 6, 7, and 8), and decreased in one patient (patient 1). LVEDP was similar in stimulated and unstimulated beats and increased significantly (P<.05) in the nonpaced 5-second period. Maximal dP/dt was unchanged between stimulated and unstimulated beats. Peak negative dP/dt was higher (P<.01 and P<.05) during the stimulated beats compared with the unstimulated beats during the stimulated and nonpaced periods, respectively. The PER of the stimulated beats was significantly higher (P<.01), with a mean of 68±24% compared with the unstimulated beats of the stimulated and nonpaced periods.

In all patients, the optimal stimulus strength was at the 1.5- to 3-V-higher voltage. In one patient (patient 2) the best setting occurred at the longer applied stimulus duration of 240 ms. Fig 3 presents P-V loops of all nine patients at their best settings. In eight patients, no signs of abnormal left ventricular relaxation during LD stimulation could be observed. Also, middiastolic pressure was not significantly changed during the LD stimulated beats. In two patients (patients 2 and 8), an abnormal isovolemic contraction phase, suggesting mitral valve regurgitation, can be observed. The P-V loops during LD stimulation clearly demonstrated a leftward shift of the end-systolic P-V points in each patient, increased SVs and systolic LV pressure, and therefore stroke work at similar end-diastolic volumes.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Pressure-volume loops of all nine patients at the best setting. Dotted lines represent the unassisted beats; solid lines represent the latissimus dorsi assisted beats. Vlv indicates left ventricular volume; PLv, left ventricular pressure.

At the patient's worst setting (Table 4), SV_mf and SV_con were not significantly changed during LD stimulation. In four patients, SV_mf and SV_con decreased during LD stimulation. End-systolic volume, dP/dt_max, and peak negative dP/dt remained unchanged during LD stimulation. Systolic aortic pressure was slightly higher (P<.05) during LD stimulation. LVEDP during the nonpaced period was higher (P<.05) compared with the stimulated and unstimulated beats of the stimulated period. The PER of the stimulated beats was higher (P<.05), with a mean of 30±25% compared with the unstimulated beats of both periods. In six patients, the worst setting was at a short delay and in three patients, at a relatively long delay.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 4. Hemodynamic Data of the Worst Setting

The regression equation of the percentage change in the SV_con and SV_mf methods was SV_con=1.34±0.96 SV_mf, r=.96, n=27.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
This study demonstrates the sensitivity of both the left ventricular conductance catheter technique and the aortic Modelflow method in quantifying the contribution of the wrapped LD muscle in cardiomyoplasty patients.

Techniques
The feasibility of the conductance catheter technique has been demonstrated in patients during cardiac surgery.¹⁶ An excellent correlation between SV_con and SV_mf changes was observed in the present study. The resolution of these two objective and independent methods surpasses the changes in SV observed at the best settings. According to Applegate et al,²¹ the conductance catheter accurately measures volume with high time resolution over single cardiac cycles, provided that the preload changes are within a physiological range. LD stimulation might have effects on the parallel conductance of left ventricular volume. However, in three patients, similar parallel conductance values with and without LD stimulation were observed. Moreover, the combined results of SV_con and SV_mf reveal that effects of a change in parallel conductance on SV, if present, are small.

The three-element Windkessel model provides a reasonable representation of afterload to estimate SV when real impedance spectra are incorporated in the model.²² In a human study, this was also demonstrated by Modelflow,¹¹ a nonlinear three-element Windkessel model with incorporated static elastic properties of the human aorta.¹⁸ A direct effect of LD muscle stimulation on arterial impedance is not likely because the LD muscle is wrapped around the heart. An "indirect" change of aortic geometry could result from a heart lifting effect of LD stimulation, which might possibly lead to a change in aortic input impedance. Such an effect should be present especially during stimulation at the early delays and should give different results for conductance and Modelflow SVs. However, such deviations were not present during the worst setting (Table 4).

Cardiac Output
SV was measured during relatively short periods of about 15 seconds when assisted and unassisted cardiac contractions were compared. These short periods were selected to prevent effects of hemodynamic compensatory reflexes, which may appear 10 to 15 seconds after a significant hemodynamic change. At the clinically used setting, no significant change in SV was observed in comparing the assisted period to the unassisted period.

A mean increase in SV of 20% of the assisted beats compared with the nonassisted beats in between was observed at the patient's individual best stimulator setting. Comparing SV of all the beats of the assisted period with the nonpaced period revealed a mean increase <10% (8%). Thus, in some patients, the increase in SV was partly at the cost of the unstimulated beats in between. Extrapolation of the increase in SV at this best setting to a longer period may result in an effective improvement of cardiac output of 8%, provided that compensatory reflexes do not occur.

Synchronization Delay
The delay between onset of the QRS complex and contraction of the wrapped LD muscle appeared to be critical, with SV even decreasing at the individual worst delay settings (Table 4). The optimal delay ranged from 25 to 125 ms in the nine patients studied, while the worst delay setting was early (4 and 25 ms) in six patients and relatively late (100 and 125 ms) in the other three. The optimal delay may be related to several factors. First, LD muscle contraction should be synchronized to the ejection phase to induce a larger SV. Second, because intraventricular conduction is disturbed in many patients with chronic heart failure, the proper onset of skeletal muscle contraction will also be dependent on the individual duration of intraventricular conduction. In the present study, three of the nine patients had bundle branch block and one had a DDD pacemaker. Third, the QRS synchronization delay should be triggered by the steep phase of the QR interval. In one patient (patient 6), the synchronization delay was triggered by the RS part of the ECG, revealing that a given delay is not always referring to a fixed reference point. In this case, the 75-ms delay was comparable to a delay of 135 ms in the other patients.

Last, the presence of aneurysms or dyskinetic areas can evoke paradoxical movements of the ventricular wall that may require different timing of LD muscle contraction. Segmental volume analysis of patient 1, with an unresected apical aneurysm, showed a contribution of the apical segments to the volume decrease during LD stimulation (Fig 2), whereas the apex showed a paradoxical volume change during the ejection phase without stimulation. In this case, the paradoxical apical movement is presumably forced into phase with the other segments during LD stimulation.

Left Ventricular Pressure
In general, it can be expected that the diastolic phase of the left ventricle will be hampered by the wrapped LD muscle, even without LD muscle contraction.²³ In the present study, no significant difference was observed between the LVEDP of the stimulated and alternating unstimulated beat at any setting used. At all settings, however, the LVEDP was significantly higher during the nonpaced 5-second period. A possible intrathoracic pressure-increasing effect due to a Valsalva-like maneuver at the end of the 15-second breath-hold period must be considered, but this should decrease venous return immediately.

At the best setting, peak negative dP/dt was even significantly higher, and diastolic pressure did not change during the LD stimulated beats, indicating the absence of a deleterious effect on diastolic function.

Contractile State
The increase in systolic aortic pressure is in agreement with the increased SV and higher PER during LD stimulation. In contrast, left ventricular dP/dt_max was not significantly changed in the best, worst, and clinical settings. An increase in dP/dt_max is not indicative of an increased SV during LD stimulation because, in most circumstances, the maximum pressure rise develops before the opening of the aortic valve.²⁴ On the other hand, peak ejection rate during the systolic ejection phase increased significantly during LD stimulation in the clinical, worst, and best settings. As mentioned by Lee et al,²⁵ the peak velocity of circumferential shortening is decreased in dilated cardiomyopathy as a consequence of intrinsic myocardial disease and increased afterload.

The increase in peak ejection rate determined as -dV/dt_max during LD muscle stimulation is also clearly demonstrated in Fig 2, in which the net systolic ejection time is shorter and SV is larger during the stimulated heartbeats.

During LD stimulation at the best setting, the leftward shift of the end-systolic pressure-volume points, the increase in PER with a mean of 68%, the increase of peak negative dP/dt, the decreased LVEDP compared with the clinical setting, and the increased SV all indicate a higher contractile state of the combined left ventricular and wrapped LD muscle. Moreover, all these changes occurred at a similar preload in stimulated and unstimulated beats, whereas the afterload of the stimulated beats as derived from the diastolic aortic pressure was higher.

Analysis of the end-systolic pressure-volume relation using a preload reduction maneuver^{26 27} has been reported in animal studies. However, this technique will probably reveal increases in end-systolic elastance and shifts to a lower end-systolic volume only when the applied stimulator settings are tuned to the patient's individual best settings.

Synchronization Model
Measurements of LD muscle shortening from x-ray films demonstrated that the contraction-relaxation cycle of a stimulated LD muscle may last up to 600 ms in a cardiomyoplasty patient.^{28 29} Ideally, the contraction phase of the LD muscle should coincide with the ejection phase, and the relaxation phase should not interfere with the subsequent diastolic filling phase.

The increase in PER with a mean of 30% at the worst setting without an obvious increase in SV suggests that effective LD muscle shortening lasted too short a time. In six patients, the worst setting was observed at a short delay (4 and 25 ms), suggestive of an ineffective LD muscle contraction starting before and finishing too early during the systolic ejection phase. This may impair systolic ejection because of a tetanic or relaxing LD muscle causing an increase in (pseudo) afterload at the end of the ejection phase. In the other three patients, the worst settings were observed at the late delays, suggesting ineffective LD muscle contraction occurring too late during the ejection phase.

In Fig 4, changes in delay combined with the contraction cycle of the LD muscle and left ventricular pressure and volume are presented schematically, assuming an interval of 50 ms between start of the stimulus and LD contraction.

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Tracings of ECG, left ventricular pressure (Plv), and left ventricular volume (Vlv) in one patient to visualize the time sequence of cardiac events during one heart cycle. Electrical stimuli (six pulses, one burst) are detected in the ECG, and subsequent latissimus dorsi muscle contraction and relaxation are inserted at three different delays following the QRS complex (4, 75, and 125 ms, respectively). Note that a delay of 4 ms is in practice a delay of 4+ 50 ms, due to physiological delay between cardiac electrical activation and latissimus dorsi muscle shortening.

Conclusions
This study shows that in patients 6 to 24 months after cardiomyoplasty surgery, significant hemodynamic effects were present during LD muscle stimulation when the patients were at rest. This was demonstrated on a beat-to-beat basis by two operator-independent techniques with a high time resolution: the conductance catheter technique and the aortic Modelflow method. Beat-to-beat analyses allow the hemodynamic effects to be observed before cardiovascular compensatory reflexes become operative. The cardiomyostimulator settings appeared to be critical in obtaining an increase or decrease in SV during stimulation. At the optimal stimulator setting, the increased contractile state during LD stimulation of the left ventricle–LD muscle combination is demonstrated by the increased peak ejection rate, leftward shift of the end-systolic P-V points, increased negative dP/dt_max, increased SV, and lower end-diastolic left ventricular pressure at similar preload and afterload conditions compared with the unstimulated beats. On the basis of the 68% increase in PER at the best setting, one may expect a substantially larger SV, provided that an ideally timed (delay, stimulus duration) skeletal muscle contraction at a given amplitude can be obtained.

At the clinically used settings, we could not demonstrate an improvement in SV, but LVEDP increased immediately after the 10-second stimulation period. Clinical improvement (NYHA class) therefore may have been caused by active prevention of cardiac dilatation.

In the present study, patients were evaluated at rest, whereas hemodynamic assist during exercise is of clinical importance. Therefore, the relevance of the findings described should be confirmed while patients perform exercise.

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was financially supported by the Bakken Research Center, Maastricht, the Netherlands. We wish to thank T. van der Nagel, C. Struble, and L. Bonandi for excellent assistance. We also express thanks to M. Lahaije and L. Frissen for assistance in preparing the manuscript.

Received July 7, 1994; revision received October 10, 1994; accepted October 31, 1994.

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