(Circulation. 1995;91:1540-1544.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Comparison of the Bleeding Potential of Vampire Bat Salivary Plasminogen Activator Versus Tissue Plasminogen Activator in an Experimental Rabbit Model
From the Hematology Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester (NY) School of Medicine and Dentistry, and Department of Biological Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pa (S.J.G.).
Correspondence to Victor J. Marder, MD, Hematology Unit, PO Box 610, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Ave, Rochester, NY 14642.
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Background Vampire bat salivary plasminogen activator (Bat-PA) has significantly greater fibrin specificity than any of the fibrinolytic agents currently in clinical use. This study tests the hypothesis that avoiding fibrinogen depletion may protect against the hemorrhage induced by plasminogen activator treatment.
Methods and Results Bat-PA was compared with tissue-type plasminogen activator (TPA) in a randomized, prospective, and blinded study using a rabbit ear puncture model of fibrinolytic bleeding. The two agents were used at equimolar dosages (42 nmol/kg) that yielded similar thrombolytic efficacies in a rabbit femoral artery thrombosis model. Both Bat-PA and TPA prolong primary bleeding to double the baseline values, from between 2.1 and 2.3 minutes to between 4.8 and 5.2 minutes. Rebleeding from hemostatically stable sites during the 3-hour observation period occurred equally often with Bat-PA and TPA, 31% from preinjection sites and 23% to 25% from postinjection sites. The lag time between the time of plasminogen activator injection and the onset of rebleeding was likewise the same for both agents, most occurring at 41 to 57 minutes. However, a greater number of prolonged primary or rebleeding occurrences continued for longer than 10 minutes (63% versus 36%) or longer than 30 minutes (30% versus 10%) after Bat-PA than TPA injection. Animals treated with TPA showed a dramatic decrease in plasma fibrinogen and factor VIII concentrations, but those in the Bat-PA treatment group showed only a slight decrease from control values.
Conclusions The results indicate that fibrinolytic bleeding after plasminogen activator infusion into rabbits did not correlate with the intensity of the plasma proteolytic state. If anything, Bat-PA usage was associated with a higher proportion of more protracted fibrinolytic bleeding episodes, despite the relatively mild lytic state in comparison with that induced by TPA.
Key Words: blood flow • fibrinolysis • plasminogen activators
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Plasminogen activators such as streptokinase, urokinase, prourokinase, tissue-type plasminogen activator (TPA), and anistreplase all promote beneficial thrombolytic revascularization but at the risk of detrimental fibrinolytic hemorrhage.1 Attempts to improve the efficacy of this class of antithrombotic agents, either by maximizing the rate and/or degree of clot lysis or by minimizing the occurrence or severity of bleeding, has led to the development of a variety of novel plasminogen activators. These new agents include recombinant mutants of TPA and urokinase,2 chemically synthesized hybrid activator species,3 and monoclonal antibody fusions that direct activators to specific substrates.4 While some of these novel plasminogen activator species exhibit improved biochemical properties of longer plasma half-life or more potent thrombolysis, none have yet been shown to provoke less bleeding. It has been postulated that selectivity for fibrin-bound plasminogen ("fibrin specificity"), manifest as plasma fibrinogen sparing such as that exhibited by TPA relative to streptokinase, urokinase, or anistreplase, would decrease hemorrhagic potential.5 This hypothetical safety advantage of TPA has not been realized in controlled, blinded trials,1 6 7 perhaps because the high dosage of TPA required to effect rapid thrombolysis elicits greater systemic proteolysis than anticipated and thereby reduces or negates the advantage of fibrin specificity.8 9 The availability of vampire bat salivary plasminogen activator (Bat-PA),10 11 12 which has significantly greater fibrin specificity than TPA,13 allows for more definitive testing of the hypothesis that avoiding fibrinogen degradation may protect against fibrinolytic-associated bleeding. Bat-PA promotes clot lysis equivalent to TPA but with minimal consumption of fibrinogen, plasminogen, and
2-antiplasmin.14 15 In a prior report that compared Bat-PA and TPA for thrombolytic effect in a rabbit femoral artery thrombus model, the primary template bleeding time in the ear was prolonged equally after bolus injection of equimolar Bat-PA or TPA.16 Nevertheless, the authors speculated that the avoidance of plasminemia and resultant fibrinogen degradation "could result in fewer and less severe bleeding complications" when encountered in a clinical trial. This prediction was seemingly supported by the results of a subsequent bleeding study in which TPA, but not Bat-PA, provoked severe bleeding from transected rabbit cuticles.17 Other in vivo evaluations of Bat-PA have emphasized thrombolytic potency without fibrinogen degradation but have not specifically explored hemorrhagic potential.18 19 In the present study, we extend the assessment of the potential bleeding risk of Bat-PA and TPA using an established rabbit ear puncture model of fibrinolytic hemorrhage.20 This animal model measures the effect of antihemostatic agents on the primary bleeding time and provides information on the incidence and duration of fibrinolytic bleeding from hemostatically stable trauma sites. Observations in this study may provide insight into the potential for bleeding in patients by use of a thrombolytic agent with strict fibrin specificity.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Experimental Model
The experimental system used the rabbit ear puncture model based on the "rebleed phenomenon."20 Twelve New Zealand White rabbits (Hazelton Research Products) weighing 2.3 to 3.1 kg were randomized to the three treatment groups in a blinded, prospective manner (see below). The experimental protocol was approved by the University Committee on Animal Research. The animals were euthanatized at the end of the portion of the experiment in which they were under anesthesia.
Before administration of anesthesia, the skin of both ears and of the neck was shaved and a depilatory (Nair, Carter-Wallace, Inc) was applied. A single, 3.5-mm full-thickness puncture was made in each ear of the unanesthetized rabbit with a number 11 surgical blade (Bard-Parker, Becton Dickinson AcuteCare) at 30, 21, 5, and 3 hours before initiation of plasminogen activator or vehicle injection. The duration of bleeding was measured by absorption of blood onto 11-cm circular filter paper (Whatman) at 30-second intervals, carefully avoiding disruption of or trauma to the bleeding site.
Animals were anesthetized with 40 mg/kg of ketamine HCl (Ketaset, Aveco Co) and 5 mg/kg xylazine (Rompun, Mobay Corp) by intramuscular injection, 1.6 to 2.2 mL total volume injected. After anesthesia was achieved, the left external jugular vein was exposed surgically, catheterized with a 30-cm 7F three-lumen catheter (Arrow), and attached to syringes containing saline, anesthesia mixture, and experimental infusion. Anesthesia was maintained by intermittent injections of the ketamine HCl and xylazine mixture approximately every 3 to 10 minutes as required. Saline was infused to keep one port open for blood sampling, the first sample being obtained just before initiation of plasminogen activator or vehicle injection. After initiation of anesthesia, two additional bleeding times were performed at 1 hour and 0.25 hour before plasminogen activator or vehicle injection.
The plasminogen activator injections were performed manually as 42 nmol/kg body wt (3 to 4.5 mL) given over 1 to 1.5 minutes. Each rabbit received 1 of 12 coded samples prospectively randomized and blinded to the observer. Of the 12 infusates, 4 contained TPA (Activase, Genentech), 4 contained Bat-PA (Merck Research Laboratories), 2 contained vehicle for TPA (0.32 mol/L arginine, 0.2 mol/L phosphoric acid, 0.01% Tween 80), and 2 contained vehicle for Bat-PA (50 mmol/L sodium acetate, 0.01% Triton X-100, pH 5.0). All infusates were prepared at Merck Research Laboratories, stored at -70°C, and thawed at room temperature 30 minutes before injection. While the primary focus of this study was a comparison of bleeding induced by Bat-PA versus TPA, the vehicle solutions were included as controls to confirm our assumption that the plasminogen activators were the only ingredients of the administered material that induced bleeding.
After injection of plasminogen activator or vehicle, bilateral ear bleeding times were performed at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 3 hours. During the 3-hour postinjection observation period, all lesions were carefully monitored for rebleeding that occurred at previously clotted sites. Additional blood samples were collected from the central line at 0.5, 2, and 3 hours after initiation of the infusion. Of the 12 animals that were injected, 3 died spontaneously near or at the end of the planned observation period, 2 at 2.5 hours after injection and 1 at 3 hours. Of these 3 animals, 2 had received Bat-PA and 1 had received TPA; none showed excessive bleeding as the cause of death. The remaining animals were euthanatized at 3 hours with an intravenous injection of 1 mL (24 mg) of sodium pentobarbital (Socumb, Butler).
Blood Collections
The blood collection line of the
triple-lumen catheter was
cleared of saline, after which 5 mL of whole blood was collected, added
to a plastic tube containing 50 µL of 40% sodium citrate, and mixed
thoroughly by inversion. Samples were placed on crushed ice until
centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4°C (Beckman GS-6R
centrifuge). Plasma was withdrawn with a 3.5-mL bulb-draw plastic
transfer pipette (Laboratory Products Sales). Two aliquots each of 100
and 300 µL were added to 2-mL plastic screw-cap microfuge tubes
(Laboratory Products Sales) containing 50 µL of
D-Phe-Pro-Arg-CH2Cl (PPACK, Calbiochem) at a
final concentration of 10 µmol/L. Plasma samples were then stored at
-20°C.
Coagulation Assays
Fibrinogen concentration was performed by
a modification of the
method of Clauss21 (Fibriquik, Organon Teknika Corp),
using fibrinogen-calibrated plasma (Verify, Organon Teknika). Frozen
plasma samples were shipped to the laboratory of S.J.G. for factor VIII
determinations by use of the Coatest VIII:C/4 kit (Kabi Vitrum AB).
Statistical Evaluations
After completion of the studies, data
were grouped according to
type of plasminogen activator or vehicle infused and analyzed without
knowledge of the specific agent or vehicle infused. Four animals with
entirely normal primary bleeding times and not a single incident of
rebleeding were assumed to represent those that received either
of the vehicles and were not included in subsequent statistical
analysis. Data for the remaining two groups of animals were
analyzed by 
2 and t test for
comparison of means.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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The primary bleeding times and rebleeding occurrences are shown schematically in Fig 1
. No rebleeding occurred at ear
trauma sites that were incurred at 21 or 30 hours before administration
of Bat-PA, TPA, or vehicle. Therefore, these data were not included in
the comparison of Bat-PA versus TPA.
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Primary Bleeding Time
The mean duration of 32 preinjection
primary bleeding times was
the same for rabbits receiving Bat-PA and TPA (2.5 and 2.1 minutes,
P=.17) (Fig 1
and Table 1). The
mean of 48
postinjection primary bleeding times was prolonged to approximately
double the preinjection values with both Bat-PA and TPA (5.2 versus 2.5
minutes, P=.06, and 4.8 versus 2.1 minutes,
P=.0002, respectively). Bat-PA and TPA also induced similar
frequencies of prolonged (>6 minutes) postinjection primary bleeding
times, 16.7% versus 20.8%, P=NS. In addition, the
proportions of bleeding times greater than 10 or 30 minutes were not
significantly different after Bat-PA or TPA infusion (Table 1).
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Rebleeding
Lag time indicates the elapsed period between
cessation of
primary bleeding and the onset of spontaneous rebleeding at any given
trauma site. The lag time until rebleeding (minutes) was the same from
puncture sites that were induced before or after activator infusion,
56.9±11 versus 44.7±10.7, P=.44, for Bat-PA and
46.0±10.1
versus 41.4±13.2, P=.79, for TPA (Table
1). The comparison
of Bat-PA and TPA showed no difference in lag time for either
preinjection sites (56.9±11.2 versus 46.0±10.1,
P=.48) or
postinjection sites (44.7±10.7 versus 41.4±13.2,
P=.85).
The overall incidence of rebleeding was the same for rabbits treated with Bat-PA or TPA (31.3% versus 31.3% and 25.0% versus 22.9% for preinjection and postinjection sites). However, there was a trend (not statistically significant) for rebleeding episodes induced by Bat-PA to persist longer than after TPA. The strongest trend was evident from the number of rebleeds at preinjection sites lasting for more than 10 minutes (25.0% for Bat-PA versus 9.4% for TPA, P=.19). In addition, there was a trend toward a longer mean duration of rebleeding (minutes) after Bat-PA at both preinjection sites (38.1±10.4 versus 21.6±9.1, P=.12) and postinjection sites (22.9±7.8 versus 13.5±4.9, P=.16).
There was no predisposition for trauma sites that exhibited prolonged (>6 minutes) primary bleeding times to manifest spontaneous rebleeding. For example, 16 of 23 rebleeding recurrences (70%) were at sites of normal primary bleeding times, compared with only 7 of 24 rebleed events (29%) at sites of a prolonged primary bleeding time.
Combined End Points for Excessive Bleeding
Excessive bleeding
was arbitrarily scored as bleeding that
continued for more than 10 minutes or more than 30 minutes (Table
2). Combining the data for primary bleeding times and
rebleeding durations showed a trend toward more prolonged bleeding
after Bat-PA infusion compared with after TPA infusion. Bleeding
episodes longer than 10 minutes occurred approximately twice as
frequently in the Bat-PA treatment group (63.3%) as in the TPA
treatment group (35.5%) (P=.06). Bleeding episodes longer
than 30 minutes occurred approximately threefold more frequently in the
Bat-PA treatment group (30.0%) than in the TPA treatment group (9.7%)
(P=.09).
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Plasma Fibrinogen and Factor VIII Concentrations
Fig
2 shows the mean plasma fibrinogen and factor
VIII concentrations after injection of vehicle, Bat-PA, or TPA. There
was little change in the levels of both fibrinogen and factor VIII
after vehicle injection. Bat-PA administration caused a modest decrease
in the level of plasma fibrinogen to 70% of baseline at 3 hours. In
marked contrast, plasma fibrinogen was decreased to unmeasurable levels
at 30 minutes after TPA administration. A similar difference in the
depletion of factor VIII occurred, with a more profound decrease in the
TPA-treated rabbits.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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The results of this study show that fibrinolytic bleeding occurs after Bat-PA injection in a rabbit ear puncture model20 despite the presence of only mild systemic proteolysis. Although TPA administration caused more marked decreases in plasma fibrinogen and factor VIII concentrations than did Bat-PA (Fig 2
), the primary
bleeding times were equally prolonged to double baseline values, as was
the number of sites that showed prolonged bleeding to more than 6, 10,
or 30 minutes, approximately 17% to 21%, 8.4%, and 0% to 2.1%,
respectively (Table 1). In addition, there was no difference in
the lag
time between injection of TPA or Bat-PA and the onset of rebleeding,
either from preinjection sites (46 and 56.9 minutes, respectively) or
postinjection puncture sites (41.4 and 44.7 minutes, respectively).
Furthermore, the overall incidence of rebleeding was the same for TPA
and Bat-PA, 31.3% of preinjection sites for both agents and 22.9% and
25% of postinjection sites, respectively. There was no predictability
of rebleeding on the basis of the duration of the primary bleeding
time, as suggested by prior work.22 Thus, about two thirds
of rebleeding occurrences were at sites of normal primary bleeding
times, and only one third of primary bleeding times that were prolonged
demonstrated a rebleeding episode. The only distinction noted was a
higher incidence of prolonged bleeding in rabbits injected with Bat-PA.
Although the number of observations was limited, there was a trend
showing more frequent bleeding episodes (both primary and rebleed)
lasting for longer than 10 or 30 minutes in the Bat-PA treatment group
(Table 2). Our finding that fibrinolytic bleeding was induced by Bat-PA, despite the virtual absence of the plasma proteolytic state, supports the long-held concept that systemic proteolysis is not imperative for bleeding complications.23 24 According to this explanation, fibrinolytic-induced bleeding occurs principally because of hemostatic plug disintegration and is independent of the extent of activation of the "fluid phase" plasminogen. Typically, a poor correlation between plasma fibrinogen and bleeding has been observed in patients receiving different plasminogen activators and in different clinical situations.9 23 24 25 However, some workers have suggested that a more profound hypofibrinogenemia predisposes to greater bleeding.26 27 28
A reasonable explanation for the apparently more protracted bleeding state in rabbits after Bat-PA than TPA administration is that Bat-PA is cleared more slowly from the circulation after intravenous administration.16 The continued exposure of nascent fibrin strands to the highly fibrin-specific Bat-PA at puncture sites may markedly impair hemostasis despite the absence of significant systemic proteolysis.
The potential bleeding risk due to Bat-PA administration has been tested with other in vivo bleeding models. Intravenous bolus administration of equimolar Bat-PA and TPA (42 nmol/kg) provoked similar prolongations of the template bleeding times in aspirin-pretreated rabbits.16 In contrast, TPA at 42 nmol/kg caused a marked prolongation of the cuticle bleeding time in rabbits, while equimolar Bat-PA was without effect.17 The present study used the same dosages of Bat-PA and TPA, but the results showed a strong trend toward more excessive bleeding after Bat-PA administration than TPA administration. The reason for the disparate effects of Bat-PA on hemostasis is obscure. One possibility to explain the difference between these bleeding models is that the transected cuticle blood vessel is substantially larger than those that are traumatized by a skin template bleeding time16 or after through-punctures of the rabbit ear20 29 and may depend more critically on plasma factor VIII concentration.
The present comparison of Bat-PA and TPA used equimolar dosages of plasminogen activators (42 nmol each), based on prior experiments in rabbits.16 However, in contrast to TPA, Bat-PA was shown to display similar thrombolytic efficacy with a threefold lower dose using a rabbit femoral artery thrombosis model.16 The greater potency of Bat-PA relative to TPA has also been shown with a rat pulmonary embolism18 and a canine femoral artery19 model. Although a lower dosage of Bat-PA could potentially produce a lesser hemorrhagic effect while maintaining thrombolytic efficacy, the data clearly document that a mild lytic state does not translate directly to less intense hemorrhagic manifestations.
In summary, Bat-PA induces a significantly lesser degree of hypofibrinogenemia than an equimolar dosage of TPA in the rabbit, but fibrinolytic bleeding is at least as evident and perhaps more protracted. These results may not be predictive of experience in patients who receive equivalent or lower dosages of Bat-PA. However, the data do suggest that Bat-PA and other plasminogen activators that display fibrin specificity will cause hemorrhagic complications similar to those that occur with plasminogen activators in current use for human disease.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported in part by grant HL-30616 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, and by a Robert I. Weed Hematology Fellowship from the University of Rochester (Dr Montoney). The authors thank Carol Weed for her help in the preparation of the manuscript and Michael McDermott, PhD, for assistance in the statistical analysis.
Received July 11, 1994; accepted September 5, 1994.
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