Published online before print June 1, 2009, doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.808618
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(Circulation. 2009;119:3017-3027.)
© 2009 American Heart Association, Inc.
Vascular Medicine |
Heme Oxygenase 1 Determines Atherosclerotic Lesion Progression Into a Vulnerable Plaque
From the Molecular Cardiology Laboratory, Experimental Cardiology, Thoraxcenter, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands (C.C., A.M.N., P.W.S., H.J.D.); Departments of Vascular Surgery (F.M.) and Cardiology (G.P.), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; and Inflammation Laboratory, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciencia, Oeiras, Portugal (V.J., M.P.S.).
Correspondence to H.J. Duckers, MD, PhD, FESC, Molecular Cardiology Laboratory, Ee2389A, Thoraxcenter, Erasmus University Medical Center, s'Gravendijksewal 230, 3015 CE Rotterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail h.duckers{at}erasmusmc.nl
Received July 22, 2008; accepted April 14, 2009.
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Abstract |
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Background— The molecular regulation for the transition from stable to vulnerable plaque remains to be elucidated. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and its metabolites have been implicated in the cytoprotective defense against oxidative injury in atherogenesis. In this study, we sought to assess the role of HO-1 in the progression toward plaque instability in carotid artery disease in patients and in a murine model of vulnerable plaque development.
Methods and Results— Atherectomy biopsy from 112 patients with clinical carotid artery disease was collected and stratified according to characteristics of plaque vulnerability. HO-1 expression correlated closely with features of vulnerable human atheromatous plaque (P<0.005), including macrophage and lipid accumulation, and was inversely correlated with intraplaque vascular smooth muscle cells and collagen deposition. HO-1 expression levels correlated with the plaque destabilizing factors matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-8, and interleukin-6. Likewise, in a vulnerable plaque model using apolipoprotein E–/– mice, HO-1 expression was upregulated in vulnerable versus stable lesions. HO-1 induction by cobalt protoporphyrin impeded lesion progression into vulnerable plaques, indicated by a reduction in necrotic core size and intraplaque lipid accumulation, whereas cap thickness and vascular smooth muscle cells were increased. In contrast, inhibition of HO-1 by zinc protoporphyrin augmented plaque vulnerability. Plaque stabilizing was prominent after adenoviral transduction of HO-1 compared with sham virus–treated animals, providing proof that the observed effects on plaque vulnerability were HO-1 specific.
Conclusions— Here we demonstrate in a well-defined patient group and a murine vulnerable plaque model that HO-1 induction reverses plaque progression from a vulnerable plaque to a more stable phenotype as part of a compensatory atheroprotective response.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • coronary disease • inflammation • genes • vasculature
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Introduction |
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Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of mortality and comorbidity in Western countries. Progressive atherosclerotic lesion destabilization with subsequent rupture, acute thrombus formation, and coronary artery occlusion is the main mechanism in the pathogenesis of myocardial infarction and sudden coronary death.1,2 Autopsy studies suggest that these atherosclerotic lesions, which are prone to rupture, typically consist of a necrotic/lipid core, covered by a thin fibrous cap with severe infiltration of macrophages in the shoulder regions.3 Rupture of these vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques is initiated by biomechanically induced tears in the thin fibrous cap or shoulder region.4,5 Subsequent exposure of the thrombogenic necrotic core results in an acute vascular occlusion. Unfortunately, most of the vulnerable lesions show only a 30% luminal occlusion by coronary angiography, and detection by conventional imaging modalities of these rupture prone plaques has proved to be difficult. The identification of new molecular biomarkers and regulators for this specific plaque phenotype may help in understanding of the progression of atherosclerosis to the vulnerable lesions and may provide new tools for diagnosis and intervention.6
Clinical Perspective on p 3027
Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), the inducible isoform of the family of heme oxygenases, degrades heme into the metabolites carbon monoxide, biliverdin, and ferrous iron. Endogenous HO-1 expression can be detected in advanced human atherosclerotic lesions localized in endothelial cells, macrophages, and foam cells.7,8 The expression of HO-1 is induced by a number of proatherogenic stimuli including increased blood pressure,9,10 smoking,11,12 and oxidized lipids,13 which also are regarded as risk factors for atherosclerosis. In animal models, induction of HO-1 (by heme administration or adenovirus-mediated transgene overexpression) impedes the development of atherosclerotic lesions, whereas inhibition of HO-1 (by zinc protoporphyrin IX [ZnPPIX]) stimulates atherogenesis.8,14 Likewise, apolipoprotein E (ApoE)/HO-1 double knockout mice demonstrate accelerated atherosclerosis compared with ApoE knockout mice when subjected to a high-cholesterol diet.15 Taken together, these antiatherogenic properties of HO-1 suggest a prominent role for HO-1 in the genetic regulation in the development of atherosclerosis. It is hypothesized that the atheroprotective properties of HO-1 are based partly on its immune-modulating properties. Overexpression of HO-1 suppresses serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-
(TNF-), interleukin (IL)-6, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1, and inhibits endothelial expression of adhesion molecules E-selectin and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, whereas, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 is stimulated.16,17 The inflammatory process is considered a crucial factor for initiating atherosclerotic development and eventual destabilization of the lesion into a vulnerable plaque phenotype. Therefore, we postulated that HO-1 may be an important regulator of advanced atherosclerotic lesion progression and eventual plaque destabilization. In the present study, we correlate HO-1 expression with phenotypes of atherosclerotic lesions in carotid endarterectomy (CEA) material obtained from patients with documented cardiovascular disease.18,19 HO-1 protein expression was specifically increased in atherosclerotic lesions and correlated closely with the instable plaque phenotype, as well as with the expression levels of intimal proinflammatory markers. This was confirmed in a validated murine vulnerable plaque model in which HO-1 induction prevented plaque progression into vulnerable lesions by increasing fibrous cap thickness and intimal vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) accumulation, whereas the necrotic core area and intraplaque lipid deposition were reduced.
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Methods |
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Analysis of Human Atherosclerotic Plaques in Human CEA Specimens
CEA specimens were obtained from a biobank that collects atherectomy-derived specimens of patients with symptomatic carotid artery disease (Athero Express Biobank, Utrecht, Netherlands).6 The study was approved by an institutional review committee, and subjects gave informed consent. Collected specimens are routinely processed for immunohistological analysis as well as for protein/RNA extraction and are subsequently quantified by 2 blinded observers for the presence of characteristics indicative of vulnerable plaque morphology, as reported earlier.18
For an extended version of Methods, see the online-only Data Supplement. For a detailed description of the animal experiments, see Figure I in the online-only Data Supplement.
Statistical Analysis
SPSS (version 16.0; SPSS Inc) was used for all analyses. For the human study, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used for data sets with nongaussian distribution and ordinal data. For dichotomous variables, the 
2 test was used. For the murine study, the 1-way ANOVA test was conducted when >2 unpaired samples were compared. When only 2 unpaired samples were tested, the unpaired t test was performed. In all cases, P values <0.05 were considered significant.
The authors had full access to and take full responsibility for the integrity of the data. All authors have read and agree to the manuscript as written.
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Results |
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HO-1 Is Specifically Upregulated in Human Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Lesions
Average HO-1 expression levels in the CEA material was 0.98±0.12 pg/mL. CEA patients were divided into quartiles of HO-1 expression: The first quartile contained 28 patients (HO-1 expression: median, 0.30 pg/mL; range, 0.15 pg/mL), the second quartile contained 27 patients (HO-1 expression: median, 0.44 pg/mL; range, 0.20 pg/mL), the third quartile contained 29 patients (HO-1 expression: median, 0.73 pg/mL; range, 0.44 pg/mL), and the fourth quartile contained 28 patients (HO-1 expression: median, 1.61 pg/mL; range, 8.05 pg/mL) (Figure IIA in the online-only Data Supplement). The baseline characteristics of these patients are shown in the Table. The distribution of carotid artery disease risk factors did not differ among the HO-1 quartiles.
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Increasing protein levels of HO-1 were associated with a characteristic vulnerable plaque phenotype (P=0.004; Figure 1A). More specifically, increasing percentages of lipids and macrophages in the carotid lesions correlated with HO-1 protein expression (P=0.006 and P=0.005; Figure 1B and 1C), whereas increasing percentages of collagen and VSMCs in the lesions correlated with decreasing levels of HO-1 (P=0.04 and P<0.0005; Figure 1D and 1E). Double labeling in immunohistological analysis suggested that HO-1 expression was localized mainly in the base of the intimal lesion (Figure 2A) and colocalized with residing macrophages, whereas HO-1 expression in VSMCs was hardly detectable (Figure 2B and 2C).
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HO-1 Expression Correlates With Distinct Molecular Markers of Plaque Vulnerability in Human CEA Material
Next, we assessed the relation between HO-1 levels and protein expression of local matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) or various inflammatory cytokines, which previously were shown to promote plaque vulnerability. HO-1 expression levels in the carotid lesions correlated with MMP-9 expression levels (P=0.02) but had only limited effects on MMP-2 protein levels (P=0.06; Figure 3A and 3B). Likewise, HO-1 levels were associated with IL-6 and IL-8 protein levels (P<0.01; Figure 3C and 3D). In contrast, no clear relation was detected with MMP-8 and IL-10 (P=0.13 and P=0.52, respectively; data not shown).
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HO-1 Expression Levels Are Associated With Plaque Thrombogenicity in Human CEA Material
Luminal or intraplaque thrombus formation is an established characteristic sign of plaque vulnerability.20–22 We therefore evaluated the relation between thrombus formation and the expression levels of HO-1. High intraplaque protein expression of HO-1 was correlated with the presence of thrombus in the assessed human carotid lesions (P=0.04; Figure 4).
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Pharmaceutical Induction of HO-1 Inhibits Vulnerable Plaque Development in ApoE–/– Mice Without Modulating Lesion Size
The observations in the human carotidectomy material suggest that HO-1 expression is upregulated in advanced atherosclerotic plaques with a vulnerable phenotype. Induction of HO-1 expression could aid in the stabilization of the atheromatous plaque. To study this, HO-1 expression was induced by cobalt protoporphyrin IX (CoPPIX) or HO-1 activity was inhibited by ZnPPIX in a mouse model for vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque formation. ApoE knockout mice were fed a high-cholesterol diet and implanted with a carotid cast as previously described. This flow-modifying device induces atherosclerotic lesions with a vulnerable phenotype in the proximal segment, whereas downstream from the device stable atherosclerotic lesions are formed. The proximal vulnerable lesions typically comprise a low content of plaque-stabilizing components, including collagen and VSMCs, and high percentages of plaque-destabilizing components, including lipids and macrophages, which taken together compose a lesion phenotype typically seen in human vulnerable plaques described by Virmani et al.22–24
Endogenous HO-1 mRNA expression was increased in murine atherosclerotic vessel segments compared with contralateral naive carotid arteries and was highest in the proximal lesions with the vulnerable phenotype compared with the distal lesions with a stable phenotype (Figure 5A) at 9 weeks after implantation. Immunohistological assessment confirmed these findings as the relative intraplaque HO-1+ surface area was extended 5-fold in the vulnerable versus the stable murine lesions (Figure 5B). HO-1 was expressed only at low levels in naive carotid arteries.
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P<0.05 CoPPIX vs ZnPPIX treated ApoE–/– mice; n=10 vs 10.CoPPIX treatment to induce HO-1 expression or ZnPPIX treatment for HO-1 inhibition was initiated at 8 weeks of Western diet (6 weeks after cast implantation), when the early lesions in the carotids do not yet show the histomorphological characteristics of vulnerable plaque development. Histomorphological analysis was performed after 3 weeks of CoPPIX or ZnPPIX treatment and 9 weeks of cast placement. HO-1 protein levels were increased in vascular segments of CoPPIX-treated mice compared with the saline-treated group by 20-fold as measured by Western blot analysis of aorta segments. HO-1 expression levels were elevated as early as 2 days after initiation of CoPPIX injections (Figure 5C). In contrast, ZnPPIX injection reduced HO-1 protein levels in the vessel segments (Figure IIB in the online-only Data Supplement). Induction of HO-1 protein was associated with an increase in serum bilirubin levels (by 51%; P<0.05; Figure 5D), indicative of HO activity, whereas ZnPPIX injections reduced the serum levels of bilirubin by 38% (P<0.05; Figure 5D). In addition, HO activity measurements in pooled aorta samples of the different groups showed similar effects. CoPPIX increased HO activity by 5.8-fold compared with saline-injected control, whereas ZnPPIX reduced HO activity by 27% (Figure IIC in the online-only Data Supplement).
HO-1 induction by CoPPIX or inhibition by ZnPPIX did not affect the neointima/media ratio of advanced vulnerable lesions (Figure 6A). However, induction of HO-1 increased the relative fibrous cap thickness (by 237%; P<0.05; Figure 6B) and caused a significant decrease in necrotic core/intima ratio (by 42%; P<0.05; Figure 6C). HO-1 induction was further associated with the induction of plaques reminiscent of stable lesions, indicated by a diminished lipid deposition (by 35%; P<0.05; Figure 6D), and an increase in VSMCs residing in the intima (by 66%; P<0.05; Figure 6E). In contrast, HO-1 inhibition by ZnPPIX decreased relative cap thickness (by 51%; P<0.05; Figure 6B), whereas the necrotic core/intima ratio was increased (by 40%; P<0.05; Figure 6C). In addition, HO-1 inhibition increased the lipid content of the vulnerable plaque (by 65%; P<0.05; Figure 6D), whereas the intimal VSMC+ surface area was reduced (by 57%; P<0.05; Figure 6E).
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Although intimal CD68+ macrophage infiltration was reduced by 37% (Figure 6F) in response to CoPPIX injections, no significant difference was observed. Likewise, ZnPPIX inhibition of HO-1 did not affect the relative intraplaque CD68+ area (Figure 6F). In addition, HO-1 induction or inhibition did not affect intimal collagen formation in the atherosclerotic lesions (Figure 6G). HO-1 induction by CoPPIX or inhibition by ZnPPIX had no effect on lesion size or plaque phenotype of stable lesions (data not shown).
Intravascular Adenoviral Transfection of an HO-1 Expression Vector Inhibits Vulnerable Plaque Development in ApoE–/– Mice Without Modulating Lesion Size
To determine the role of HO-1 overexpression during vulnerable plaque development, HO-1 expression was induced by adenoviral vector–mediated transfection of HO-1 at 6 weeks after cast placement. HO-1 overexpression was validated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of carotid vessel segments treated with sham or HO-1 adenovirus. A 4-fold increase in HO-1 protein expression was induced in the HO-1-adenovirus–treated vessels compared with uninfected or 
E1A sham adenovirus-infected carotid arteries 1 week after intra-arterial injection (Figure IID in the online-only Data Supplement). In concordance with our previous findings, the intima/media ratio of the vulnerable lesions did not differ between the HO-1 adenovirus and E1 sham adenovirus transfected groups (Figure 7A).
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HO-1 adenovirus–treated animals showed a significant increase in relative fibrous cap thickness (of 70%; P<0.05; Figure 7B), whereas the necrotic core/intima ratio was diminished (by 62.5%; P<0.05; Figure 7C). Transgenic overexpression of HO-1 also decreased lipid accumulation in the vulnerable plaque (by 40.4%; P<0.05; Figure 7D), whereas relative intraplaque VSMCs were increased (by 139.4%; P<0.05; Figure 7E) compared with E1 sham adenovirus transfected controls. Similar to the findings in the CoPPIX-treated group, HO-1 adenovirus transgenic overexpression did not affect CD68+ macrophage accumulation in vulnerable plaque (Figure 7F), nor did it alter intimal collagen formation (Figure 7G).
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Discussion |
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The present data on human CEA atherosclerotic plaques and on murine vulnerable lesions suggest that HO-1 expression is strongly associated with vulnerable plaque morphology: HO-1 protein expression was specifically upregulated in human vulnerable atherosclerotic lesions with lipid and macrophage accumulation and low collagen and VSMC content. These lesions typically express high levels of the proteolytic factor MMP-9 and proatherogenic cytokines (IL-6, IL-8) and show increased plaque thrombogenicity. HO-1 expression levels correlated closely with the extent of these vulnerable plaque characteristics. Furthermore, in a murine vulnerable plaque model, induction of HO-1, either by CoPPIX injection or by adenovirus-mediated transgenesis, prevented vulnerable plaque formation and led to the development of lesions with a more stable phenotype: HO-1 induction diminished the necrotic core and increased fibrous cap thickness, without affecting lesion size, and HO-1 reduced lipid and increased VSMC accumulation in the intima. In contrast, inhibition of HO-1 by ZnPPIX treatment induced a reversed effect and triggered plaque destabilization.
HO-1 was designated as a protein involved in heme protein degradation but more recently was suggested to play a more versatile role because the heme catabolic products were shown to be cytoprotective. HO-1 has been associated with early atherogenesis, as shown in previous clinical studies. Kaneda and coworkers25 showed in a study with 554 patients that short (GT)(n) repeats in the HO-1 gene promoter with elevated HO-1 expression was predictive of a beneficial outcome in coronary atherosclerotic disease progression. Likewise, the ability of blood-derived mononuclear cells to express HO-1 correlated with short (GT)n promoter repeats suggested that high HO-1 expression levels protect against the initiation of atherosclerosis.26 Previously, increased HO-1 expression was also detected in advanced atherosclerotic lesions.7,27 However, data on the genetic regulation of advanced atherosclerotic lesions and the progression into vulnerable plaques are lacking.
In the present study, we sought to define the role of HO-1 in the genetic regulation of vulnerable plaque formation. Intraplaque HO-1 expression in carotid artery disease patients correlated with plaque vulnerability, as assessed by the intimal distribution of plaque components. These observations were corroborated by correlations with proatherogenic cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 and with MMP-9, previously shown to be involved in collagen breakdown that weakens the atherosclerotic cap and adds to the vulnerability of the advanced atherosclerotic lesion. Increased HO-1 levels in lesions with an atheromatous/vulnerable plaque phenotype suggested that HO-1 could be upregulated to modulate plaque morphology and stability. In agreement with this finding, HO-1 was expressed in endothelial cells overlying advanced atherosclerotic lesions, whereas endothelial cells derived from early lesions did not express HO-1 in a small group of patients.28 Immunohistological analysis of these human atherosclerotic lesions by others and in the present study showed that HO-1 was expressed mainly by the macrophages/foam cells residing or infiltrating in the neointima.
In addition, atherosclerotic vulnerable lesions are characterized by an increase in frequency and extent of intraplaque hemorrhages because of intimal neovascularization, increased permeability of the vasa vasorum, or extravasation of hemoglobin due to small ruptures. Clearance and degradation of hemoglobin by infiltrated CD163+ macrophages again induce HO-1 expression. Schaer and coworkers27 described colocalization of HO-1 and macrophages that express the hemoglobin scavenger receptor CD163 in human atherosclerotic lesions. In vitro, HO-1 expression was induced by CD163 internalization after hemoglobin binding in macrophages. In the present analysis of human carotid vulnerable plaque, HO-1 was specifically upregulated in vulnerable lesions with the highest thrombogenicity, suggesting that intimal hemorrhages could stimulate HO-1 expression in this type of lesions, presumably as a compensatory mechanism.
The induction of HO-1 that occurs in the vulnerable plaque strongly suggests a role for this enzyme in the regulation of plaque destabilization and stabilization. Previously, it was shown that adenoviral gene transfer of HO-1 inhibits initiation of atherogenesis, as suggested by a reduction in intimal size of lesions located in the aortic root and aortic arch in ApoE–/– mice.29 Induction of HO-1 by hemin injections also decreased the lesion size in low-density lipoprotein receptor–/– mice, whereas HO-1 inhibition by Sn-protoporphyrin IX promoted lesion development compared with the saline-treated control animals.8 In HO-1/ApoE double knockout mice, accelerated atherosclerotic lesion formation was observed, whereas the ApoE knockout control mice developed lesions with the characteristics of a fatty streak after 8 weeks of a Western diet. However, the role of HO-1 in the molecular regulation of plaque progression into an advanced complex lesion with plaque vulnerability remains poorly understood.
The function of HO-1 in the progression of early atherosclerotic lesions into advanced vulnerable plaques was therefore investigated in an established vulnerable plaque model developed in the mouse with the use of a shear stress–modifying device placed around the carotid arteries of ApoE knockout mice.30 Cast placement has been shown to induce low shear stress proximal to and oscillatory shear stress distal to the device,30 which will induce atherosclerotic lesions that are histologically reminiscent of human vulnerable plaques in the proximal region and stable plaques distal to the cast.23,24 In this murine model, endogenous HO-1 expression was indeed increased in the vulnerable plaque region compared with the downstream stable plaque region. HO-1 induction by CoPPIX injections was initiated at 6 weeks after cast placement. Previous studies have indicated that at this time point, lesions in the proximal segments are already developed with an advanced phenotype with VSMC infiltration and cap formation, although a necrotic core is still absent. Although late HO-1 induction had no effect on lesion size, further progression of the vulnerable plaque phenotype was prevented in the HO-1 CoPPIX and HO-1 adenovirus groups, indicated by a decrease in the necrotic content, and reduced lipid deposition in the vulnerable lesions compared with the saline and E1A sham adenovirus groups. In agreement with this finding, HO-1 deficiency was associated with increased oxidized low-density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages and lipid accumulation in foam cells in vitro.31 Accumulation and apoptosis of foam cells in the atherosclerotic lesion led to extracellular lipid deposition and the formation of the necrotic core characteristic of a vulnerable plaque. The observed decrease in intimal lipids in response to HO-1 upregulation could have aided in plaque stabilization by limiting the necrotic core area. In agreement with these findings, HO-1 inhibition by ZnPPIX indeed augmented lipid accumulation and increased necrotic core size.
HO-1 upregulation by CoPPIX or adenovirus-mediated gene transfer was also associated with a significant increase in the percentage of intimal VSMCs and the relative cap thickness of a more stabilized atherosclerotic lesion. HO-1 might prevent cap thickening by inhibition of VSMC proliferation. HO-1 expression inhibited progression of wire- or balloon injury–induced restenosis by VSMC cell-cycle arrest via its catabolic end products.32,33 However, Yet and coworkers15 showed in an autologous vein graft transplantation model that neointimal VSMCs in HO-1–/– vein grafts were severely reduced by increased VSMC death as detected by a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated dUTP nick-end labeling assay. In addition, HO-1 deletion significantly decreased viability of VSMCs after oxidative stress stimulation in vitro and in vivo associated with hemodynamic pressure in the vein graft model.15 Taken together, these data support the idea that HO-1 expression may protect VSMCs from oxidative stress–induced cell death. Because of the distinct morphology of the vulnerable plaque, the VSMC-rich fibrous cap is indeed exposed to high vascular strain and apoptosis during the cardiac cycle. This renders the lesion prone to rupture by sheer mechanical force1 but also weakens the cap by inducing apoptosis in the residing VSMCs. In addition, high secretion levels of proinflammatory cytokines including TNF- by macrophages residing at the boundaries of the necrotic core could provide an additional source of oxidative stress for VSMCs.34,35 However, TNF- alone is unable to trigger apoptosis in VSMCs because it also activates the nuclear factor-
B–mediated cell survival pathway.36 VSMC programmed cell death induced by additional factors, however, can be facilitated by the presence of TNF-. Recent studies have indicated that the sensitivity of VSMCs to free fatty acid– and oxysterol-induced apoptosis could be amplified by TNF- stimulation.37–39 In our present study, intimal VSMC accumulation was significantly preserved in the arteries by HO-1 induction, whereas HO-1 inhibition had an opposite effect. This finding suggested that HO-1 promotes VSMC survival in the fibrous cap and neointima by protecting the cells against oxidative stress damage, surpassing the cytostatic effect of HO-1. Currently, we are studying the role of HO-1 in porcine VSMCs in vitro, and preliminary data suggest that HO-1 induction can protect against TNF-–presensitized cell death. Further studies are being conducted to better understand the role of HO-1 in VSMC survival.
In conclusion, the present study provides evidence that HO-1 expression defines the progression of an advanced atherosclerotic lesion into a vulnerable plaque, both in human carotid atherosclerotic lesions (in 112 patients) and in a hyperlipidemic vulnerable plaque mouse model. HO-1 expression in vulnerable plaques is enhanced as a compensatory atheroprotective response, in which HO-1 prevents plaque instability by impeding lipid deposition and necrotic core growth and by prolonging VSMC survival in the fibrous cap. Genetic or pharmaceutical enhancement of HO-1 levels could protect this type of lesion from rupture, thereby reducing the risks on subsequent acute coronary events.
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Acknowledgments |
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We would like to thank Kim Wagtmans for excellent technical assistance.
Sources of Funding
Caroline Cheng is the recipient of the Dutch NWO-VENI grant. Henricus J. Duckers is the recipient of the Dutch NWO-VIDI grant. Miguel P. Soares is supported by grants POCTI/BIA-BCM/56829/2004, POCTI/SAU-MNO/56066/2004, and POCTI/SAU/56066/-2007 from Fundação para Ciência e Tecnologia, Portugal, and European Commission’s Sixth Framework Programme, XENOME (LSHB-CT-2006037377). Victoria Jeney is supported by the European Commission’s Seventh Framework, PEOPLE-2007-2-1-IEF GasMalaria.
Disclosures
None.
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Footnotes |
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*The first 2 authors contributed equally to this work.
The online-only Data Supplement is available with this article at http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.808618/DC1.
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