Published online before print December 18, 2006, doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.617811
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
(Circulation. 2007;115:213-220.)
© 2007 American Heart Association, Inc.
Hypertension |
Promotion of Faster Weight Gain in Infants Born Small for Gestational Age
Is There an Adverse Effect on Later Blood Pressure?
From the Medical Research Council Childhood Nutrition Research Centre (A.S., M.F., K.K., A.L.) and Centre for Pediatric Epidemiology and Biostatistics (T.J.C.), Institute of Child Health, London; Academic Division of Child Health, University Hospital, Nottingham (T.S.); and Leicester General Hospital National Health Service Trust, Gwendolen Road, Leicester (A.E.-J.), UK.
Correspondence to Dr Atul Singhal, Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford St, London, UK. E-mail a.singhal{at}ich.ucl.ac.uk
Received February 8, 2006; accepted October 20, 2006.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Background— Being born small for gestational age is associated with later risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as high blood pressure. Promotion of postnatal growth has been proposed to ameliorate these effects. There is evidence in animals and infants born prematurely, however, that promotion of growth by increased postnatal nutrition increases rather than decreases later cardiovascular risk. We report the long-term impact of growth promotion in term infants born small for gestational age (birth weight <10th percentile).
Methods and Results— Blood pressure was measured at 6 to 8 years in 153 of 299 (51%) of a cohort of children born small for gestational age and randomly assigned at birth to receive either a standard or a nutrient-enriched formula. The enriched formula contained 28% more protein than standard formula and promoted weight gain. Diastolic and mean (but not systolic) blood pressure was significantly lower in children assigned to standard compared with nutrient-enriched formula (unadjusted mean difference for diastolic blood pressure, –3.2 mm Hg; 95% CI, –5.8 to –0.5; P=0.02) independent of potential confounding factors (adjusted difference, –3.5 mm Hg; P=0.01). In observational analyses, faster weight gain in infancy was associated with higher later blood pressure.
Conclusions— In the present randomized study targeted to investigate the effect of early nutrition on long-term cardiovascular health, we found that a nutrient-enriched diet increased later blood pressure. These findings support an adverse effect of relative "overnutrition" in infancy on long-term cardiovascular disease risk, have implications for the early origins of cardiovascular disease hypothesis, and do not support the promotion of faster weight gain in infants born small for gestational age.
Key Words: blood pressure • follow-up studies • gestational age • nutrition
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Infants born small for gestational age (SGA) are at long-term risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD)1 and its risk factors (such as high blood pressure2), but whether manipulation of nutrition and growth in infancy can influence these effects is controversial.
Previously, epidemiological associations between greater weight at 1 year of age and a lower risk of later CVD have led to suggestions that promotion of infant growth may be beneficial for later CVD.3,4 Paradoxically, however, intervention studies in animals indicate that promotion of early growth by a higher nutrient intake increases later cardiovascular risk.5–8 Recent data in humans are also conflicting. For instance, faster growth in early life was not associated with mortality from CVD in a Finnish cohort9 but was associated with later cardiovascular risk factors such as endothelial dysfunction,10 insulin resistance,11 and dislipidemia12 in preterm infants. Similarly, in infants born at term, upward percentile crossing for weight was associated with higher later blood pressure,13–15 insulin resistance,16 and, in 2 systematic reviews, an increased risk of later obesity.17,18 Promotion of growth in infancy may also be detrimental for later CVD risk. For instance, nutritional supplementation with dried milk powder in infancy has been shown to have an adverse long-term effect on, or program, higher blood pressure in adulthood.19 However, most previous studies in humans are observational, and there are few randomized studies with long-term prospective follow-up that can inform the optimal management of infants born SGA.
Clinical Perspective p 220
In the present study, we investigated the role of early nutrition and weight gain on later CVD risk using an experimental approach. We studied term infants born SGA, whom it was ethical at the time to assign randomly to a nutrient-enriched formula that promoted growth (which was thought to be beneficial)20 or to a standard formula. Our principal and a priori outcome was later blood pressure, an established risk factor for CVD, known to be programmed by early nutrition21 and to track into adult life.22
|
Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Participants
Research nurses recruited infants from 5 hospitals in Cambridge, Nottingham, and Leicester in the United Kingdom between 1993 and 1995.20 Infants meeting the eligibility criteria (
37 weeks of gestation, with birth weight below the 10th percentile for gestation and sex according to UK growth charts, and free of congenital abnormalities) were enrolled as soon as possible after birth.20 Gestational age was determined from the last menstrual period or first trimester ultrasound scan. Infants of mothers who had unequivocally decided to formula-feed were randomly assigned (at a mean age of 4 days; n=299) to receive a standard, term formula (Farley’s Ostermilk, Farley’s Health Products, a division of HJ Heinz Company Ltd, Stockley Park Uxbridge, UK) or a nutrient-enriched formula (Farley’s PremCare). The randomization schedule, generated by random permuted blocks and prepared by a member of the team not involved in data collection, was assigned with the use of sealed envelopes.20 A reference group of breast-fed infants (37 weeks of gestation and birth weight <10th percentile) was also recruited (n=175).20 Informed written consent was obtained from the parent, and the study was approved by the research ethics committees of each participating center.
Study Design
Formulas were assigned until age 9 months. Anthropometric and demographic information was obtained as described.20 Social class was based on the occupation of the parent providing the main financial support for the family according to the registrar general’s classification.
Composition of Formulas
Both formulas fulfilled the European Community directive for the composition of formulas for term infants. Nutrient-enriched formula contained 28% more protein than standard formula and also more minerals, trace elements, and vitamins to support the projected increase in weigh and length gain (Table 1).
|
Follow-Up
All children who were alive, traceable, and willing to participate were reviewed in their homes between 1999 and 2002. Ethical approval for the follow-up was obtained from research ethics committees at each center, and written consent was obtained from children’s parents or guardians. The derivation of the sample followed up at 6 to 8 years of age is given in the Figure.
|
All researchers and study participants were blinded to the original dietary assignments. Diastolic and systolic blood pressures were measured with an automated oscillometric device (Accutorr, Datascope Corp, NJ), which has been recommended by the European Society of Hypertension and validated previously with protocols from the US Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation and the British Hypertension Society.23,24 Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) was derived automatically from the shape of the blood pressure curve according to the following formula:
|
|
Measurements were made, after 10 minutes of rest, on 2 occasions 5 minutes apart in the left arm with the use of an appropriately sized cuff,21 and the average value was obtained. Height and weight were measured by trained observers using a portable stadiometer accurate to 1 mm (Holtain Instruments Ltd, Crymych, UK) and electronic scales accurate to 0.1 kg (Seca, CMS Weight Equipment Ltd, London, UK), respectively.
Statistical Analysis
Sample size was based on our previous study21 and estimated to detect a half SD difference in mean diastolic blood pressure and MAP between randomized formula-fed groups at 80% power and 5% significance21 (requiring 
128 subjects). A subset of 153 formula-fed children agreed to participate.
Our outcomes were diastolic blood pressure and MAP, which have been shown previously to be programmed by early nutrition.21 Secondary outcomes were systolic blood pressure and size at follow-up. Comparisons between (randomized) groups were made with Student t test for continuous variables and 
2 test for categorical variables. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to adjust differences in outcome between randomized groups for possible baseline differences. Initial analyses were on an intention-to-treat basis and included all children followed up irrespective of whether they complied with the initial diet. Secondary analyses were confined to those who complied with the dietary intervention.
Linear regression analyses were used to assess the influence of growth rate on later blood pressure. In 6 separate regression models, growth was expressed as the change in weight or length SD score (z score) (calculated with the use of percentiles for British infants) from birth to age 9 months, 9 to 18 months, and 18 months to 6 to 8 years. Regression analyses were adjusted for potential confounding factors (age, sex, z score for weight and height at 6 to 8 years, and social class). Assumptions of linearity were checked in exploratory analyses with the use of nonparametric statistics and visual inspection of scatterplots.
The authors had full access to the data and take full responsibility for the integrity of the data. All authors have read and agree to the manuscript as written.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Main Effect: Comparison of Groups Randomly Assigned to Different Formulas
Children reviewed at 6 to 8 years were representative of the original study population; there were no differences in demographic, anthropometric, or socioeconomic factors in infancy between children who were or were not followed up (Table 2). A greater percentage of boys was reviewed in the nutrient-enriched formula group compared with the standard-formula group (Table 3); this would not be expected to confound our findings because diastolic blood pressure, MAP, and systolic blood pressure did not differ by sex (eg, mean blood pressure=78 [SD 8] mm Hg in boys versus 78 [SD 8] mm Hg in girls; P=0.6). There were no other significant differences between randomly assigned dietary groups in anthropometric, socioeconomic, or demographic factors at baseline or at follow-up (Table 3) or in maternal age, anthropometry, education, and incidence of smoking or high blood pressure during pregnancy (data not shown). There were no adverse events reported (reasons for participants withdrawing from the trial are given in the Figure).20
|
|
At age 6 to 8 years, diastolic blood pressure and MAP were lower in children randomly assigned to standard formula compared with nutrient-enriched formula (for diastolic blood pressure: mean difference, –3.2 mm Hg; P=0.02) (Table 4). Similar findings were obtained after adjustment for potential confounding factors (age, sex, z score for weight and height at 6 to 8 years, and social class) (Table 4).
|
There was little evidence that the relation between formula type and later blood pressure differed according to sex (P>0.4 for formulaxsex interactions for diastolic blood pressure, MAP, or systolic blood pressure). When stratified by sex, blood pressure tended to be lower in both boys and girls randomized to standard formula versus nutrient-enriched formula (mean difference [95% CI] in boys: diastolic: –2.1 [–6.2 to 2.0] mm Hg, P=0.3; MAP: –2.5 [–6.2 to 1.3] mm Hg, P=0.2; systolic: –1.7 [–6.4 to 3.0] mm Hg, P=0.5; in girls: diastolic: –4.6 [–8.4 to –0.8] mm Hg, P=0.02; MAP: –3.5 [–7.4 to 0.4] mm Hg, P=0.08; systolic: –2.6 [–7.3 to 2.2] mm Hg, P=0.3).
The effect of early diet on later diastolic blood pressure was also evident after the analysis was confined to those who completed the initial diet (137 of 153) (per protocol) and adjustment for potential confounding factors (as above) (mean difference, –3.7 mm Hg; 95% CI, –6.5 to –0.9; P=0.009). Similar findings were obtained for MAP (mean difference, –3.2 mm Hg; 95% CI, –5.9 to –0.5; P=0.02) but not for systolic blood pressure (mean difference, –2.2 mm Hg; 95% CI, –5.5 to 1.0; P=0.2).
Association With Birth Weight
Diastolic blood pressure was lower in infants randomized to standard versus nutrient-enriched formula after adjustment for birth weight for gestational age z score (birth weight z score) (mean difference, –3.2 mm Hg; 95% CI, –6.0 to –0.6; P=0.02). There was a trend for nutrient-enriched formula to have a greater adverse effect on later blood pressure in those with lower birth weight for gestation; the interaction between nutrient-enriched formula and birth weight z score was statistically significant for MAP (P=0.04) but not for systolic (P=0.08) or diastolic blood pressure (P=0.4).
Nonrandomized Analyses
In a secondary analysis, we tested the hypothesis that upward percentile crossing for weight programmed later blood pressure. Infant weight gain was assessed as both a dichotomous and continuous variable.
When infant weight gain was analyzed as a dichotomous variable, diastolic blood pressure was greater in children whose weight z score increased between birth and age 9 months (mean [SD]: 63.5 [8.0] mm Hg; n=104) than in those without such acceleration in weight (59.9 [7.1] mm Hg; n=29) (unadjusted mean difference, 3.6 mm Hg; 95% CI, 0.3 to 6.8; P=0.03). Similar findings were obtained after adjustment for potential confounding factors (adjusted mean difference, 3.7 mm Hg; 95% CI, 0.3 to 7.2; P=0.03); for MAP (unadjusted mean difference, 4.6 mm Hg; 95% CI, 1.4 to 7.7; P=0.005; adjusted mean difference, 4.7 mm Hg; 95% CI, 1.5 to 8.0; P=0.005); and for systolic blood pressure (unadjusted mean difference, 5.6 mm Hg; 95% CI, 1.8 to 9.4; P=0.004; adjusted mean difference, 5.1 mm Hg; 95% CI, 1.3 to 9.0; P=0.01).
As a continuous variable, the change in weight z score between birth and 9 months was not associated with higher later diastolic blood pressure (0.7 mm Hg increase per z score change; 95% CI, –0.8 to 2.3; P=0.3) but was associated with higher MAP (1.5 mm Hg increase per z score change; 95% CI, 0.1 to 3.0; P=0.04) and systolic blood pressure (1.7 mm Hg increase per z score change; 95% CI, –0.01 to 3.4; P=0.05) independent of potential confounding factors (as above). Similar observations were obtained after adjustment for confounding factors (as above) together with randomized diet (for diastolic blood pressure: 0.8 mm Hg increase per z score change in weight between birth and 9 months; 95% CI, –0.7 to 2.3; P=0.3; MAP: 1.5 mm Hg increase per z score change; 95% CI, 0.04 to 3.0; P=0.04; and systolic blood pressure: 1.7 mm Hg increase per z score change; 95% CI, –0.08 to 3.4; P=0.06).
Blood pressure at age 6 to 8 years was not associated with acceleration in length between birth and age 9 months or with the change in weight or length z score between age 9 and 18 months or between 18 months and 6 to 8 years (data not shown).
Breast-Fed Reference Group
Blood pressure in breast-fed infants (mean [SD]: diastolic, 62.5 [8.6]; MAP, 78.2 [7.8]; systolic, 101.7 [9.4] mm Hg) was similar to infants fed a standard or nutrient-enriched formula. However, exploratory analyses suggested that faster early weight gain also programmed higher later blood pressure in breast-fed children. Thus, breast-fed infants whose weight z score increased in the first 9 months (n=76) had higher diastolic blood pressure (mean [SD], 63.1 [8.5] mm Hg) than those whose weight did not (55.6 [6.4] mm Hg; n=11) (mean difference, 7.5 [95% CI, 2.2 to 12.8] mm Hg; P=0.006). Similar findings were made for mean and systolic blood pressure (P<0.02 for both).
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
In the present prospective experimental study, we found that consumption of a nutrient-enriched formula programmed higher blood pressure in SGA infants. We postulate that these effects, seen up to 8 years after random dietary assignment, were the result of faster weight gain in infancy promoted by the nutrient-enriched diet. Our findings support the concept that early nutrition has a major impact on long-term cardiovascular health in infants born at term, as shown previously in experimental studies in infants born preterm,11,21 and these findings provide further experimental evidence to support the hypothesis that faster growth in infancy has adverse effects for later blood pressure.13–15 Therefore, together with evidence from animal studies5–8 and from studies in preterm infants10–12 and both SGA16 and healthy term infants13–15,17,18 (including 2 systematic reviews for effects on later obesity17,18), our findings argue against the promotion of faster weight gain in infants born SGA.
The size of the effect of early diet on later blood pressure (3 mm Hg) may amplify with age25 and for populations is substantial in terms of its potential impact on public health, although the 95% CIs around the point estimate raise the possibility that the effect size could be smaller. Lowering population-wide diastolic blood pressure by only 2 mm Hg, however, would be expected to prevent 100 000 myocardial and cerebrovascular events per year in the United States alone.26 The present study therefore has important implications for infant nutrition policy. Our data indirectly support the promotion of breast-feeding, which is associated with slower weight and length gain in infancy,27 but, at least in term infants born SGA, discourage the promotion of faster weight gain.
The effect of a nutrient-enriched early diet on later blood pressure appears to be mediated via an effect on the rate of early weight gain. This finding is consistent with detrimental effects of faster growth in infancy on cardiovascular risk factors5–8 and life span28 in animals, endothelial dysfucntion10 and insulin resistance11 in infants born prematurely, and a tendency to obesity in healthy term infants.17,18,29 Both faster linear growth and faster weight gain have been implicated previously.10,16,29 Faster weight gain2,30 and length gain2 in older children have also been consistently associated with higher later blood pressure. However, these studies have usually estimated growth from the difference in weight z score between birth and a point later in childhood or adult life and therefore have not defined the period of postnatal weight gain that has the greatest negative impact on later blood pressure.
Surprisingly, there are relatively few data on the programming effects of weight gain in infancy, which, as the period of most rapid growth, could be particularly influential. A recent Brazilian study showed that faster weight gain in infancy, childhood, or after puberty had exactly the same negative implications for later systolic blood pressure (0.37 mm Hg increase in systolic blood pressure per z score increase in weight gain per year).13 Similarly, faster weight gain in infancy was associated with later systolic blood pressure in prospective studies of adults from Finland14 and children from the United States.15 In contrast, a follow-up of a British cohort did not find any effect of infant weight gain on adult blood pressure,30 whereas a greater fall in ponderal index between 6 and 18 months of age predicted higher systolic blood pressure in adults living in Hong Kong.31 These previous conflicting findings might be explained by differences in study populations (eg, from a developed or developing country), different ages at follow-up, and the impact of confounding factors associated with an observational study design. In contrast, our experimental study, in which random dietary assignment produced differences in weight and length growth, shows that faster weight gain in infancy programs both higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure later in childhood.
We considered several potential limitations to the interpretation of our data. First, only 51% of the original population was followed up. However, this is unlikely to introduce systematic bias because our sample was representative of those recruited at birth, and subject characteristics of children who were reviewed at age 6 to 8 years did not differ between randomized groups at birth or at follow-up. Moreover, there is no prior reason why the epidemiological association between acceleration in weight in infancy and later blood pressure should differ between children reviewed and those not reviewed. Similarly, the excess of boys in the nutrient-enriched compared with the standard formula group at follow-up did not affect the findings because there were no sex differences in blood pressure at age 8 years and because the effects of nutrient-enriched formula on later blood pressure were independent of sex.
Second, the applicability of our findings to infants not born SGA is uncertain. Previous studies in animals,5–8 our data in preterm infants,10,11 and studies in term infants17,18 suggest that programming effects of a nutrient-enriched diet and faster weight and length gain on later CVD risk factors, including blood pressure,13–15 are independent of size at birth. Whether similar effects are seen in infants with appropriate birth weight needs further research, although nutrition intervention studies are more difficult to justify in such groups. Nonetheless, the adverse effect of a nutrient-enriched early diet on later outcome in our study appeared to be greater in babies with lower birth weight, consistent with data from animal studies.28 Previously, blood pressure has been shown to be lower in breast-fed than formula-fed individuals.21 That this was not shown here may be because breast-fed infants, when born SGA, also show deleterious (spontaneous) faster postnatal weight gain. In fact, we found a 7.5 mm Hg difference in diastolic blood pressure between 78% of breast-fed infants who showed faster weight gain and those who did not.
Third, we studied children and did not have prospective follow-up into adulthood. Therefore, it is theoretically possible that the positive association between early weight gain and later blood pressure reverses in adult life, although a previous association between faster weight gain in infancy and higher blood pressure in adulthood14 argues against this hypothesis.
Finally, the present study did not identify mechanisms for the observed effects. Nevertheless, differences in blood pressure between randomized dietary groups were independent of body weight adjusted for height (in regression analyses), a major determinant of blood pressure also strongly influenced by faster weight gain in infancy.17,18 In fact, as in infants born prematurely,32 a nutrient-enriched diet did not have long-term effects on height or weight in SGA infants. Furthermore, in accordance with a previous report,33 only acceleration in weight and not length was associated with higher later blood pressure. This is consistent with our previous findings of a smaller effect of faster early length gain compared with weight gain on later endothelial function.10
Previously, we postulated that faster growth programs the metabolic syndrome possibly by an effect on hormonal systems such as insulin-like growth factor-1.34 Our present findings were consistent with this hypothesis and support an evolutionary conserved mechanism, which suggests that faster early growth can have negative effects on long-term health and, in many species, there is a tradeoff within individuals between accelerated early growth and shorter life span.5,35 Because the present randomized study addressed infant feeding and not growth, however, the present study cannot determine whether it is faster weight gain itself or infant nutrition (1 determinant of early growth) that is the mechanistic link between nutrient-enriched formula and higher later blood pressure. Thus, the high protein content of the nutrient-enriched formula was designed to fuel faster weight and length gain, and the higher content of other nutrients was calculated to meet the increased nutrient needs for infants growing faster. However, we cannot exclude the possibility that differences between formulas in specific nutrients such as calcium or phosphorus would have been influential for later blood pressure, although there are no convincing studies to suggest this explanation. Nonetheless, the primary role of growth in programming is supported by our preliminary observation that faster weight gain programmed higher blood pressure even in breast-fed infants. Similarly, faster weight gain has been shown to program later obesity independent of protein intake29 and the method of infant feeding.36
Thus, we suggest that, as in animal models,5–8 the cost of faster growth in infancy is a later increase in cardiovascular risk. Although faster weight gain has short-term advantages for morbidity in infants with low birth weight from low-income countries,37 whether risk-benefit analysis will lead to similar conclusions in such infants from high-income countries remains uncertain. Importantly, unlike the case for infants born prematurely, a nutrient-enriched diet in infancy did not improve cognitive development at age 18 months in our SGA infants.38 Clearly, further data are required to inform the debate on the effects of early growth for later cardiovascular outcomes and in particular to explain the discrepancies in findings from some historical cohorts3,4,9 and more recent observational13–15 and experimental studies.11,21 Our findings, however, support the hypothesis that the promotion of faster weight gain has adverse programming effects on later blood pressure, at least in term infants born SGA.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
We thank Wendy Jenkins, Dee Beresford, Penny Lucas, and Emma Sutton for technical assistance.
Sources of Funding
This study was funded by the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom. We thank Farley’s Health Products (a division of HJ Heinz Company Ltd, Stockley Park Uxbridge, UK) for supplying the trial formulas.
Disclosures
None.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
1. Barker DJP, Gluckman PD, Godfrey KM, Harding JE, Owen JA, Robinson JS. Fetal nutrition and cardiovascular disease in adult life. Lancet. 1993; 341: 938–941.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
2. Huxley RR, Shiell AW, Law CM. The role of size at birth and postnatal catch-up growth in determining systolic blood pressure: a systematic review of the literature. J Hypertens. 2000; 18: 815–831.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
3. Fall CHD, Vijayakumar B, Barker DJP, Osmond C, Duggleby S. Weight in infancy and prevalence of coronary heart disease in adult life. BMJ. 1995; 310: 17–20.
4. Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C, Barker DJP. Early growth and coronary heart disease in later life: longitudinal study. BMJ. 2001; 322: 949–953.
5. Metcalfe NB, Monaghan P. Compensation for a bad start: grow now, pay later? Trends Ecol Evol. 2001; 16: 254–260.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
6. Plagemann A, Heidrich I, Gotz F, Rohde W, Dorner G. Obesity and enhanced diabetes and cardiovascular risk in adult rats due to early postnatal overfeeding. Exp Clin Endocrinol. 1992; 99: 154–158.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
7. Plagemann A, Harder T, Rake A, Voits M, Fink H, Rohde W, Dorner G. Perinatal elevation of hypothalamic insulin, acquired malformations of hypothalamic galaninergic neurons, and syndrome X-like alterations in adulthood of neonatally overfed rats. Brain Res. 1999; 836: 146–155.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8. Lewis DS, Bertrand HA, McMahan CA, McGill HC, Carey KD, Masoro EJ. Preweaning food intake influences the adiposity of young adult baboons. J Clin Invest. 1986; 78: 899–905.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
9. Barker DJP, Osmond C, Forsen TJ, Kajantie E, Eriksson JG. Trajectories of growth among children who have coronary events as adults. N Engl J Med. 2005; 353: 1802–1809.
10. Singhal A, Cole TJ, Fewtrell MS, Deanfield J, Lucas A. Is slower early growth beneficial for long-term cardiovascular health? Circulation. 2004; 109: 1108–1113.
11. Singhal A, Fewtrell M, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Low nutrient intake and early growth for later insulin resistance in adolescents born preterm. Lancet. 2003; 361: 1089–1097.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
12. Finken MJJ, Keijzer-Veen MG, Van Montfoort AG, Dekker FH, Frolich M, Romijn JA, Hille ETM, Van der Heijden AJ, Wit JM. Early catch-up growth in weight of very preterm low birthweight infants is associated with higher levels of LDL-cholesterol and apo-B at age 19. Pediatr Res. 2003; 53 (suppl): 32. Abstract.
13. Horta BL, Barros FC, Victora CG, Cole TJ. Early and late growth and blood pressure in adolescence. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003; 57: 226–230.
14. Jarvelin MR, Sovio U, King V, Lauren L, Xu B, McCarthy MI, Hartikainen AL, Laitinen J, Zitting P, Rantakallio P, Elliot P. Early life factors and blood pressure at age 31 years in the 1966 northern Finland birth cohort. Hypertension. 2004; 44: 838–846.
15. Hemachandra AH, Howards PP, Schisterman EF, Klebanoff MA. Interaction between birth weight and postnatal growth does not increase risk for high blood pressure at age 7 years: results from the United States Collaborative Perinatal Project. Pediatr Res. 2005; 58: 1102. Abstract.
16. Soto N, Bazaes RA, Pena V, Salazar T, Avila A, Iniguez G, Ong KK, Dunger DB, Mericq MV. Insulin sensitivity and secretion are related to catch-up in small for gestational age infants at age 1 year: results from a prospective cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003; 88: 3645–3650.
17. Monteiro POA, Victora CG. Rapid growth in infancy and childhood and obesity in later life: a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2005; 6: 143–154.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
18. Baird J, Fisher D, Lucas P, Kleijnen J, Roberts H, Law C. Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and later obesity. BMJ. 2005; 331: 929–934.
19. Martin RM, McCarthy A, Smith GD, Davies DP, Ben-Shlomo Y. Infant nutrition and blood pressure in early adulthood: the Barry Caerphilly Growth Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77: 1489–1497.
20. Fewtrell MS, Morley R, Abbott RA, Singhal A, Stephenson T, MacFadyen UM, Clements H, Lucas A. Catch-up growth in small for gestational age term infants: a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001; 74: 516–523.
21. Singhal A, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomized trials. Lancet. 2001; 357: 413–419.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
22. Sanchez-Bayle M, Munoz-Fernandez MT, Gonzalez-Requejo A. A longitudinal study of blood pressure in Spanish schoolchildren. Arch Dis Child. 1999; 81: 169–171.
23. Anwar YA, Tendler BE, McCabe EJ, Mansoor GA, White WB. Evaluation of the Datascope Accutorr Plus according to the recommendations of the association for the advancement of medical instrumentation. Blood Press Monit. 1997; 2: 105–110.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
24. O’Brien E, Waeber B, Parati G, Staessen J, Myers MG. Blood pressure measuring devices: recommendations of the European Society of Hypertension. BMJ. 2001; 322: 531–536.
25. Law CM, De Swiet M, Osmond C, Fayers PM, Barker DJP, Cruddas AM, Fall CHD. Initiation of hypertension in utero and its amplification throughout life. BMJ. 1993; 306: 24–27.
26. Cook NR, Cohen J, Herbert PR, Taylor JO, Hennekens CH. Implications of small reductions in diastolic blood pressure for primary prevention. Arch Intern Med. 1995; 155: 701–709.
27. Ong KKL, Preece MA, Emmett PM, Ahmed ML, Dunger DB. Size at birth and early childhood growth in relation to maternal smoking, parity and infant breast-feeding: longitudinal birth cohort study and analysis. Pediatr Res. 2002; 52: 863–867.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
28. Ozanne SE, Hales CN. Catch-up growth and obesity in male mice. Nature. 2004; 427: 411–412.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
29. Gunnarsdottir I, Thorsdottir I. Relationship between growth and feeding in infancy and body mass index at the age of 6 years. Int J Obes. 2003; 27: 1523–1527.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
30. Law CM, Shiell AW, Newsome CA, Syddall HE, Shinebourne EA, Fayers PM, Martyn CN, DeSwiet MF. Infant and childhood growth and adult blood pressure: a longitudinal study from birth to 22 years of age. Circulation. 2002; 105: 1088–1092.
31. Cheung YB, Low L, Osmond C, Barker D, Karlberg J. Fetal growth and early postnatal growth are related to blood pressure in adults. Hypertension. 2000; 36: 795–800.
32. Morley R, Lucas A. Randomized diet in the neonatal period and growth performance until 7.5–8 y of age in preterm children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 71: 822–828.
33. Lundgren EM, Cnattingius HMS, Jonsson GB, Tuvemo TH. Linear catch-up growth does not increase the risk of elevated blood pressure and reduces the risk of overweight in males. J Hypertens. 2001; 19: 1533–1538.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
34. Singhal A, Lucas A. Early origins of cardiovascular disease: is there a unifying hypothesis? Lancet. 2004; 363: 1642–1645.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
35. Metcalfe NB, Monaghan P. Growth versus lifespan: perspectives from evolutionary ecology. Exp Gerontol. 2003; 38: 935–940.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
36. Ong KKL, Ahmed ML, Emmett PM, Preece MA, Dunger DB. Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2000; 320: 967–971.
37. Victora CG, Barros FC, Horta BL, Martorell R. Short-term benefits of catch-up growth for small for gestational-age infants. Int J Epidemiol. 2001; 30: 1325–1330.
38. Morley R, Fewtrell MS, Abbott RA, Stephenson T, MacFadyen UM, Lucas A. Neurodevelopment in children born small for gestational age: a randomized trial of nutrient enriched versus standard-formula, and comparison with a reference breast-fed group. Pediatrics. 2004; 113: 515–521.
 |
|
 |
|
  R. W. J. Leunissen, G. F. Kerkhof, T. Stijnen, and A. Hokken-Koelega Timing and Tempo of First-Year Rapid Growth in Relation to Cardiovascular and Metabolic Risk Profile in Early Adulthood JAMA, June 3, 2009; 301(21): 2234 - 2242. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. Lurbe, E. Carvajal, I. Torro, F. Aguilar, J. Alvarez, and J. Redon Influence of Concurrent Obesity and Low Birth Weight on Blood Pressure Phenotype in Youth Hypertension, June 1, 2009; 53(6): 912 - 917. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. E Symonds, T. Stephenson, and H. Budge Early determinants of cardiovascular disease: the role of early diet in later blood pressure control Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2009; 89(5): 1518S - 1522S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 F. Criscuolo, P. Monaghan, L. Nasir, and N. B Metcalfe Early nutrition and phenotypic development: 'catch-up' growth leads to elevated metabolic rate in adulthood Proc R Soc B, July 7, 2008; 275(1642): 1565 - 1570. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. L. Tarry-Adkins, M. S. Martin-Gronert, J.-H. Chen, R. L. Cripps, and S. E. Ozanne Maternal diet influences DNA damage, aortic telomere length, oxidative stress, and antioxidant defense capacity in rats FASEB J, June 1, 2008; 22(6): 2037 - 2044. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. S Fewtrell, K. Kennedy, A. Singhal, R. M Martin, A. Ness, M. Hadders-Algra, B. Koletzko, and A. Lucas How much loss to follow-up is acceptable in long-term randomised trials and prospective studies? Arch. Dis. Child., June 1, 2008; 93(6): 458 - 461. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Neu Myths and Dogmas in Neonatal Gastroenterology and Nutrition NeoReviews, November 1, 2007; 8(11): e485 - e490. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. T. Alexander Divergent pathways of programming: prenatal vs. postnatal protein undernutrition Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, September 1, 2007; 293(3): R1257 - R1258. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. S. Cohen Current Issues in Human Milk Banking NeoReviews, July 1, 2007; 8(7): e289 - e295. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||