doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000130409.72142.FE
(Circulation. 2004;109:2394-2397.)
© 2004 American Heart Association, Inc.
Review: Special Report |
Mutation in the KCNQ1 Gene Leading to the Short QT-Interval Syndrome
From the Laboratoire de Physiopathologie et de Pharmacologie Cellulaires et Moléculaires, INSERM U533, Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes, France (C.B., D.E., I.B.), and the Experimental and Molecular Cardiology Group (A.C.G.v.G., C.R.B., A.A.M.W.) and the Department of Clinical Genetics (C.R.B., M.A., M.M.A.M.M.), Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, and the Interuniversity Cardiology Institute (A.A.M.W.), Utrecht, the Netherlands.
Correspondence to Dr A.A.M. Wilde, Department of Clinical and Experimental Cardiology, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail a.a.wilde{at}amc.uva.nl
Received October 17, 2003; de novo received January 15, 2004; revision received March 10, 2004; accepted March 15, 2004.
Abstract
Background— The electrocardiographic short QT-interval syndrome forms a distinct clinical entity presenting with a high rate of sudden death and exceptionally short QT intervals. The disorder has recently been linked to gain-of-function mutation in KCNH2. The present study demonstrates that this disorder is genetically heterogeneous and can also be caused by mutation in the KCNQ1 gene.
Methods and Results— A 70-year man presented with idiopathic ventricular fibrillation. Both immediately after the episode and much later, his QT interval was abnormally short without any other physical or electrophysiological anomalies. Analysis of candidate genes identified a g919c substitution in KCNQ1 encoding the K+ channel KvLQT1. Functional studies of the KvLQT1 V307L mutant (alone or coexpressed with the wild-type channel, in the presence of IsK) revealed a pronounced shift of the half-activation potential and an acceleration of the activation kinetics leading to a gain of function in IKs. When introduced in a human action potential computer model, the modified biophysical parameters predicted repolarization shortening.
Conclusions— We present an alternative molecular mechanism for the short QT-interval syndrome. Functional and computational studies of the KCNQ1 V307L mutation identified in a patient with this disorder favor the association of short QT with mutation in KCNQ1.
Key Words: death, sudden • genetics • arrhythmia • ion channels • fibrillation, ventricular
In recent years, extensive progress has been made in unraveling the pathophysiology of the monogenic arrhythmia syndromes among which are long-QT syndrome, Brugada syndrome, and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia.1 The latest addition to this class of disorders is the description of families with a high rate of sudden death and exceptionally short QT intervals,2 recently attributed to gain-of-function mutation in KCNH2.3 In this study, we demonstrate that this disorder is genetically heterogeneous and can also be caused by mutation in the KCNQ1 gene that encodes the KvLQT1 K+ channel, which, in association with the ß-subunit IsK, forms the slow component of the cardiac delayed rectifier K+ current (IKs).4
Methods
Patient Characteristics
A 70-year-old man was successfully resuscitated after a ventricular fibrillation episode. He had been without complaints up until then, and his family history was unremarkable. Physical examination revealed no abnormalities. His ECG is presented in Figure 1. Sinus rhythm was present with normal conduction intervals and a QT interval of 290 ms (QTc, 302 ms). Similarly short QT intervals were observed on every ECG up to 3 years of follow-up. Biochemical analysis at the time of admission, including echocardiography, exercise testing, coronary angiography, left (LV) and right ventricular (RV) angiography, scintigraphy, and ergonovine coronary spasm test, revealed no abnormalities. Nuclear LV ejection fraction was 49%. During electrophysiological study, no arrhythmias could be induced. The electrophysiology protocol used was ventricular stimulation from two sites (RVA, RVOT), with 2 cycle length (600, 430 ms) and up to 2 extras (coupling interval 
180 ms with capture, effective refractory period 
180 ms). LV myocardial biopsies revealed no abnormalities.
|
Genetic Studies
Genetic studies were approved by the Medical Ethical Committee of the Academic Medical Center. Mutation screening of the coding region of the KCNE1 (minK, IsK), KCNE2 (MIRP1), KCNH2 (HERG), and KCNQ1 (except for exon 1) genes was performed either by direct sequencing, single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis followed by sequencing of aberrant conformers, or denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography analysis followed by direct sequencing of fragments displaying an abnormal elution profile.
The KCNQ1 gene was analyzed in 200 unrelated control individuals to exclude the possibility that the identified KCNQ1 mutation (V307L) represented a common polymorphism. This was done by direct sequencing (n=86) or by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography analysis (n=114) of the exon concerned.
Electrophysiological Analysis
The V307L KvLQT1 cDNA was subcloned from the pSGEM vector (a kind gift from Klaus Steinmeyer, Aventis Pharma Deutschland GmbH) into pCI-CMV. COS-7 cells were transfected with pRC-CMV-IsK and wild-type (WT) or V307L KvLQT1 construct in a ratio of 2:1. To mimic the heterozygous state, COS cells were transfected with pRC-CMV-IsK, and WT and V307L KvLQT1 constructs in a ratio of 2:0.5:0.5. To investigate further IsK-V307L KvLQT1 interactions, a ratio of pRC-CMV-IsK to V307L of 1:2 was also studied. In all cases, pEGFP (BD Biosciences Clontech) was cotransfected as reporter. Twenty-four hours after transfection, whole-cell currents were recorded at 35°C using the permeabilized-patch configuration. The pipette solution contained (in mmol/L) potassium gluconate 145, EGTA 1, and HEPES 10, and 0.2 to 0.4 µg/mL amphotericin B added extemporarily, pH 7.3 with KOH. The extracellular medium contained (in mmol/L) sodium gluconate 145, potassium gluconate 4, hemi–calcium gluconate 7 (free Ca2+: 1), hemi–magnesium gluconate 4 (free Mg2+: 1), HEPES 5, and glucose 5, pH 7.4 with NaOH. Patch-clamp data are presented as mean±SEM. Statistical significance was assessed by means of the Student t test or 2-way ANOVA when needed.
Computer Modeling
To investigate the impact of the altered characteristics of the V307L mutation on the ventricular action potential (AP), we used the human ventricular cell model of Priebe and Beuckelmann.5 Intracellular [Na+] and [K+] were kept constant, and steady-state values and time constants of activation and inactivation of all currents were precalculated and stored in look-up tables. Steady-state activation of IKs was replaced by a Boltzmann equation to incorporate the findings with respect to half-activation voltage (V0.5) and slope factor. For the calculations we used a fixed time step of 200 ms. The last AP of each 10-s run was analyzed.
Results
Genetic studies on the patient’s DNA excluded mutation in KCNE1, KCNE2, and KCNH2. Analysis of the KCNQ1 gene identified a G>C substitution at nucleotide 919 (GTG>CTG) leading to the substitution of the valine at position 307 by leucine (V307L), which was not detected in 400 normal chromosomes.
Illustrative WT and V307L KvLQT1 K+ currents recorded in the presence of IsK are shown in Figure 2A (a and c). The V307L channel produced a K+ current with an amplitude similar to WT (tail current density at –40 mV elicited by a prepulse from –80 mV to +40 mV for 1 s, 13.93±2.01 pA/pF for V307L and 10.58±1.67 pA/pF for WT [n=16 cells in each group; NS, t test]). As illustrated in Figure 2B, compared with WT, V0.5 for the mutant channel was more negative (P<0.001) and the slope of the voltage sensitivity was unchanged (17.40±1.19 and 16.09±1.00 for WT and V307L, n=9 and 14 cells, respectively; NS). In addition, activation kinetics were accelerated at each potential as depicted in Figure 2A and 2C. When the activating current traces were fitted using a double exponential function, both fast (
fast act) and slow (slow act) activation time constants were significantly decreased for the mutant (P<0.01, 2-way ANOVA for repeated measurements). The fast activating component contributed to 
75% of the WT or V307L current at each potential. Kinetics of deactivating currents at various test-pulse potentials after depolarization to +60 mV were not significantly different between mutant and WT (not shown). Altogether, the shift in activation and the faster activation kinetics imply a gain of function for the mutant.
|
;n=14). C, Fast (
n=9), and V307L (c, 
; n=9). D, Computer model of the ventricular AP. Stimulus pulse, 1 Hz, 2 ms, 2.9 nA. Steady-state activation was calculated by a Boltzmann function 1/{1+exp[(V0.5–Vm)/s]}. Left panel, APs of WT (V0.5=–5.9 mV, s=17.4 mV; a), heterozygous expression (V0.5=–20.62 mV, s=10.96 mV, activation time constant tau set at 70% of WT; b), homozygous mutant expression (V0.5=–24.05 mV, s=16.0 9 mV, tau set at 52% of WT; c), and homozygous mutant expression with reduced IsK (V0.5 and s as in c; tau set at 32% of WT [d]). AP durations at 50% repolarization were 280, 223.5, 206, and 177 ms, respectively. Right panel, IKs currents during APs in left panel.The effects of the V307L mutation were also evaluated in conditions mimicking the heterozygous state of the patient. As compared with WT alone, coexpression of WT and mutant channels (Figure 2Ab and 2C) led to an accelerated activation of K+ current (P<0.01 for both time constants), whereas the current density was not different (tail current density at –40 mV, 11.79±0.80 pA/pF; n=13). In addition, compared with WT alone, activation was shifted toward more negative potentials (V0.5=–20.62± 2.23 mV; n=9; P<0.001) and the slope of activation was changed (10.96±1.15; n=9; P<0.001).
KvLQT1 channel activity is strongly regulated by the IsK subunit. The effect of different IsK and V307L channel ratios (namely 2:1 and 1:2) was also evaluated. As illustrated in Figure 2Ad and 2C, at a 1:2 ratio, K+ current activation was accelerated with respect to the 2:1 ratio (P<0.01; n=9 for both time constants). Surprisingly, the current density was not significantly decreased (11.44±0.078 pA/pF; n=19), whereas, in cells expressing a 2:1 WT:IsK ratio, we failed to observe any K+ current in 8 of 19 cells, resulting in a mean tail current density reduction to 2.63±0.44 pA/pF (n=19).
In the Priebe–Beuckelmann5 computer model of the human AP, the observed changes in V0.5, slope and time constants were implemented. Figure 2D shows that the combined shift of activation and decrease in activation time constant diminished AP duration and that their effects were additive. The figure also shows the change in amplitude of IKs during the APs.
Discussion
Herein we present an alternative molecular substrate for the short QT-interval syndrome. We demonstrate that gain-of-function mutation affecting IKs also results in shortening of the QT interval. Abbreviation of the AP, particularly when occurring inhomogeneously, should provide a substrate for reentrant arrhythmias. Because the contribution of IKs is different in the various cell layers of the heart, such inhomogeneity in AP duration is to be expected.
The V307L mutation has previously been investigated in Xenopus oocytes, although in the absence of IsK.6 V307L led to suppression of KvLQT1 inactivation, a characteristic that is exclusively observed in the absence of IsK.7 In the presence of IsK, we show that the major effects of the V307L mutation, even in the heterozygous state, are an acceleration of the activation kinetics and a shift in the V0.5 of activation, both effects leading to a gain of function. As a result, the K+ current resulting from association of WT and V307L subunits can be recruited earlier during the AP. The studies involving different ratios of V307L to IsK suggest that V307L subunit trafficking is less dependent on the presence of IsK than WT even if its activation kinetics remain under the control of IsK.
A S140G KCNQ1 mutation with gain-of-function characteristics was recently linked to familial atrial fibrillation.8 It is not immediately clear why the S140G mutation is not associated with shortened QT intervals. However, a major difference between the S140G and the V307L mutations is that the former leads to a time-independent current in the presence of IsK, whereas the latter conserves its time dependency. A time-independent K+ current is reminiscent of the current activated by acetylcholine in the atria that is known to precipitate atrial tachyarrhythmias.
Although the present report does not definitely prove a causal relation between the short QT interval, the occurrence of ventricular fibrillation, and the KCNQ1 mutation, circumstantial evidence for a causal relationship is provided on several levels. Firstly, the mutation has not been found in 200 control individuals. Secondly, it concerns a residue that is well conserved in different species. Thirdly, the observed basic electrophysiological characteristics associated with the mutation are expected to lead to enhanced repolarization with shortening of the QT interval.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Fondation de France. Chloé Bellocq is financially supported by INSERM/Pays-de-Loire, Dr Bezzina by the Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant 2000.059), and Dr Wilde by the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (grant 902-16-193) and Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands project 27. We thank Maxence Fretaud (U533) and Faranak Hosseinnia-Salehi and Karin van der Lip (Academic Medical Center) for expert technical assistance.
References
1. Spooner PM, Albert C, Benjamin EJ, et al. Sudden cardiac death, genes, and arrhythmogenesis. Circulation. 2001; 103: 2361–2364.
2. Gaita F, Giustetto C, Bianchi F, et al. Short QT syndrome: a familial cause of sudden death. Circulation. 2003; 108: 965–70.
3. Brugada R, Hong K, Dumaine R, et al. Sudden death associated with short-QT syndrome linked to mutations in HERG. Circulation. 2004; 109: r151–r156.
4. Barhanin J, Lesage F, Guillemare E, et al. KvLQT1 and lsK (minK) proteins associate to form the IKs cardiac potassium current. Nature. 1996; 384: 78–80.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
5. Priebe L, Beuckelmann DJ. Simulation study of cellular electric properties in heart failure. Circ Res. 1998; 82: 1206–1223.
6. Seebohm G, Scherer CR, Busch AE, et al. Identification of specific pore residues mediating KCNQ1 inactivation. A novel mechanism for long QT syndrome. J Biol Chem. 2001; 276: 13600–13605.
7. Tristani-Firouzi M, Sanguinetti MC. Voltage-dependent inactivation of the human K+ channel KvLQT1 is eliminated by association with minimal K+ channel (minK) subunits. J Physiol. 1998; 510: 37–45.
8. Chen YH, Xu SJ, Bendahhou S, et al. KCNQ1 gain-of-function mutation in familial atrial fibrillation. Science. 2003; 299: 251–254.
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  A. C.G. van Ginneken MinK: a double-hearted partner in cardiac repolarization Cardiovasc Res, June 1, 2009; 82(3): 390 - 391. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Shephard and C. Semsarian Advances in the prevention of sudden cardiac death in the young Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease, April 1, 2009; 3(2): 145 - 155. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Y. Chung, P. J. Chan, J. R. Bankston, L. Yang, G. Liu, S. O. Marx, A. Karlin, and R. S. Kass Location of KCNE1 relative to KCNQ1 in the IKS potassium channel by disulfide cross-linking of substituted cysteines PNAS, January 20, 2009; 106(3): 743 - 748. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. G. Priori, C. Napolitano, S. E. Humphries, and J. Skipworth CHAPTER 9 Genetics of Cardiovascular Diseases ESC Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, January 1, 2009; 2(1): med-9780199566990-chapter - med-9780199566990-chapter. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Nattel Delayed-rectifier potassium currents and the control of cardiac repolarization: Noble and Tsien 40 years after J. Physiol., December 15, 2008; 586(24): 5849 - 5852. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. A. Noseworthy and C. Newton-Cheh Genetic Determinants of Sudden Cardiac Death Circulation, October 28, 2008; 118(18): 1854 - 1863. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Heitzmann and R. Warth Physiology and Pathophysiology of Potassium Channels in Gastrointestinal Epithelia Physiol Rev, July 1, 2008; 88(3): 1119 - 1182. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. R. Behr, C. Dalageorgou, M. Christiansen, P. Syrris, S. Hughes, M. T. Tome Esteban, E. Rowland, S. Jeffery, and W. J. McKenna Sudden arrhythmic death syndrome: familial evaluation identifies inheritable heart disease in the majority of families Eur. Heart J., July 1, 2008; 29(13): 1670 - 1680. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Peroz, N. Rodriguez, F. Choveau, I. Baro, J. Merot, and G. Loussouarn Kv7.1 (KCNQ1) properties and channelopathies J. Physiol., April 1, 2008; 586(7): 1785 - 1789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. E. Lehnart, M. J. Ackerman, D. W. Benson Jr, R. Brugada, C. E. Clancy, J. K. Donahue, A. L. George Jr, A. O. Grant, S. C. Groft, C. T. January, et al. Inherited Arrhythmias: A National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Office of Rare Diseases Workshop Consensus Report About the Diagnosis, Phenotyping, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Approaches for Primary Cardiomyopathies of Gene Mutations Affecting Ion Channel Function Circulation, November 13, 2007; 116(20): 2325 - 2345. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Antzelevitch Role of spatial dispersion of repolarization in inherited and acquired sudden cardiac death syndromes Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): H2024 - H2038. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. Munoz, K. R. Grzeda, T. Desplantez, S. V. Pandit, S. Mironov, S. M. Taffet, S. Rohr, A. G. Kleber, and J. Jalife Adenoviral Expression of IKs Contributes to Wavebreak and Fibrillatory Conduction in Neonatal Rat Ventricular Cardiomyocyte Monolayers Circ. Res., August 31, 2007; 101(5): 475 - 483. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. N. Viswanathan and R. L. Page Short QT: When Does It Matter? Circulation, August 14, 2007; 116(7): 686 - 688. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Fatkin, R. Otway, and J. I. Vandenberg Genes and Atrial Fibrillation: A New Look at an Old Problem Circulation, August 14, 2007; 116(7): 782 - 792. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
O. Anttonen, M.J. Junttila, H. Rissanen, A. Reunanen, M. Viitasalo, and H.V. Huikuri Prevalence and Prognostic Significance of Short QT Interval in a Middle-Aged Finnish Population Circulation, August 14, 2007; 116(7): 714 - 720. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. G. Reinig and T. R. Engel The Shortage of Short QT Intervals Chest, July 1, 2007; 132(1): 246 - 249. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Antzelevitch, G. D. Pollevick, J. M. Cordeiro, O. Casis, M. C. Sanguinetti, Y. Aizawa, A. Guerchicoff, R. Pfeiffer, A. Oliva, B. Wollnik, et al. Loss-of-Function Mutations in the Cardiac Calcium Channel Underlie a New Clinical Entity Characterized by ST-Segment Elevation, Short QT Intervals, and Sudden Cardiac Death Circulation, January 30, 2007; 115(4): 442 - 449. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Giustetto, F. Di Monte, C. Wolpert, M. Borggrefe, R. Schimpf, P. Sbragia, G. Leone, P. Maury, O. Anttonen, M. Haissaguerre, et al. Short QT syndrome: clinical findings and diagnostic-therapeutic implications Eur. Heart J., October 2, 2006; 27(20): 2440 - 2447. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Developed in Collaboration With the European Heart, D. P. Zipes, A. J. Camm, M. Borggrefe, A. E. Buxton, B. Chaitman, M. Fromer, G. Gregoratos, G. Klein, A. J. Moss, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death) J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., September 5, 2006; 48(5): e247 - e346. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Writing Committee Members, D. P. Zipes, A. J. Camm, M. Borggrefe, A. E. Buxton, B. Chaitman, M. Fromer, G. Gregoratos, G. Klein, A. J. Moss, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death) Developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society Europace, September 1, 2006; 8(9): 746 - 837. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. G. Priori and C. Napolitano Role of Genetic Analyses in Cardiology: Part I: Mendelian Diseases: Cardiac Channelopathies Circulation, February 28, 2006; 113(8): 1130 - 1135. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. A. Marill and P. T. Ellinor Case 37-2005 -- A 35-Year-Old Man with Cardiac Arrest while Sleeping N. Engl. J. Med., December 8, 2005; 353(23): 2492 - 2501. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Brugada, K. Hong, J. M. Cordeiro, and R. Dumaine Short QT syndrome Can. Med. Assoc. J., November 22, 2005; 173(11): 1349 - 1354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Shah, F. G. Akar, and G. F. Tomaselli Molecular Basis of Arrhythmias Circulation, October 18, 2005; 112(16): 2517 - 2529. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Nerbonne and R. S. Kass Molecular Physiology of Cardiac Repolarization Physiol Rev, October 1, 2005; 85(4): 1205 - 1253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Schimpf, C. Wolpert, F. Gaita, C. Giustetto, and M. Borggrefe Short QT syndrome Cardiovasc Res, August 15, 2005; 67(3): 357 - 366. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Kaab and E. Schulze-Bahr Susceptibility genes and modifiers for cardiac arrhythmias Cardiovasc Res, August 15, 2005; 67(3): 397 - 413. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J.M. Cordeiro, R. Brugada, Y.S. Wu, K. Hong, and R. Dumaine Modulation of IKr inactivation by mutation N588K in KCNH2: A link to arrhythmogenesis in short QT syndrome Cardiovasc Res, August 15, 2005; 67(3): 498 - 509. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. R. Ehrlich, S. Zicha, P. Coutu, T. E. Hebert, and S. Nattel Atrial fibrillation-associated minK38G/S polymorphism modulates delayed rectifier current and membrane localization Cardiovasc Res, August 15, 2005; 67(3): 520 - 528. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Schulze-Bahr Short QT Syndrome or Andersen Syndrome: Yin and Yang of Kir2.1 Channel Dysfunction Circ. Res., April 15, 2005; 96(7): 703 - 704. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. G. Priori, S. V. Pandit, I. Rivolta, O. Berenfeld, E. Ronchetti, A. Dhamoon, C. Napolitano, J. Anumonwo, M. R. di Barletta, S. Gudapakkam, et al. A Novel Form of Short QT Syndrome (SQT3) Is Caused by a Mutation in the KCNJ2 Gene Circ. Res., April 15, 2005; 96(7): 800 - 807. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. M. Scheinman and E. Keung The year in clinical electrophysiology J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., March 1, 2005; 45(5): 790 - 795. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Antzelevitch Cardiac repolarization. The long and short of it Europace, January 1, 2005; 7(s2): S3 - S9. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. L. Weiss, G. Seemann, F. B. Sachse, and O. Dössel Modelling of short QT syndrome in a heterogeneous model of the human ventricular wall Europace, January 1, 2005; 7(s2): S105 - S117. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. Extramiana and C. Antzelevitch Amplified Transmural Dispersion of Repolarization as the Basis for Arrhythmogenesis in a Canine Ventricular-Wedge Model of Short-QT Syndrome Circulation, December 14, 2004; 110(24): 3661 - 3666. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. F. Tomaselli and D. P. Zipes What Causes Sudden Death in Heart Failure? Circ. Res., October 15, 2004; 95(8): 754 - 763. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||