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(Circulation. 2003;107:2844.)
© 2003 American Heart Association, Inc.

Basic Science Reports

Role of L-Type Calcium Channels in Pacing-Induced Short-Term and Long-Term Cardiac Memory in Canine Heart

Alexei N. Plotnikov, MD^*; Hangang Yu, PhD^*; J. Christoph Geller, MD^*; Ravil Z. Gainullin, PhD; Parag Chandra, MBBS; Kornelis W. Patberg, MD; Steven Friezema, MD; Peter Danilo, Jr, PhD; Ira S. Cohen, MD, PhD; Steven J. Feinmark, PhD; Michael R. Rosen, MD

From the Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Departments of Pharmacology and Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY (A.N.P., R.Z.G., P.C., K.W.P., S.F., P.D., S.J.F., M.R.R.); the Universitatsklinik Magdeburg, Klinik fur Kardiologie, Magdeburg, Germany (J.C.G.); and the Institute of Molecular Cardiology, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, SUNY Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY (H.Y., I.S.C.). Dr Yu is now at the New York College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY.

Correspondence to Michael R. Rosen, MD, Gustavus A. Pfeiffer Professor of Pharmacology, Professor of Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, Department of Pharmacology, 630 W 168 St, PH7West-321, New York, NY 10032. E-mail mrr1{at}columbia.edu

	Abstract

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Background— We tested the hypothesis that I_Ca,L is important to the development of cardiac memory.

Methods and Results— The effects of L-type Ca²⁺ channel blockade and ß-blockade were tested on acutely anesthetized and on chronically instrumented, conscious dogs. Short-term memory (STM) was induced by 2 hours of ventricular pacing and long-term memory (LTM) by ventricular pacing for 21 days. STM dogs received placebo, nifedipine, or propranolol, and LTM dogs received placebo, atenolol, or amlodipine. AT₁ receptor blockade (candesartan) and ACE inhibition (trandolapril) were also tested in LTM. Microelectrodes were used to record transmembrane potentials from isolated epicardial and endocardial slabs using a protocol simulating STM in intact animals. Left ventricular epicardial myocytes from LTM or sham control dogs were dissociated, and I_Ca,L was recorded (whole-cell patch-clamp technique). Evolution of STM and LTM was attenuated by I_Ca,L blockers but not ß-blockers. Neither AT₁ receptor blockade nor ACE inhibition suppressed LTM. In microelectrode experiments, pacing induced an epicardial-endocardial gradient change mimicking STM that was suppressed by nifedipine. In patch-clamp experiments, peak I_Ca,L density in LTM and control were equivalent, but activation was more positive and time constants of inactivation longer in LTM (P<0.05).

Conclusions— I_Ca,L blockade but not ß-adrenergic blockade suppresses cardiac memory. LTM evolution is unaffected by angiotensin II blockade and is associated with altered I_Ca,L kinetics.

Key Words: calcium • pacing • ventricles • electrocardiography • electrophysiology

	Introduction

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Altering ventricular activation by pacing or arrhythmia induces cardiac memory (CM), in which T-wave changes tracking the ectopic ventricular QRS complexes persist after normal atrioventricular activation resumes.^1–3 CM has clinical impact in that its ST-T–wave changes may mimic those of ischemia,² and it may modify antiarrhythmic drug efficacy⁴ and expression of rhythm and arrhythmia.⁵ We reported previously that CM incorporates an altered transmural gradient for ventricular repolarization contributed to by decreased density and altered kinetics of the transient outward potassium current, I_to.⁶ However, the elevated plateau and prolonged action potential duration (APD) of epicardial and endocardial myocytes in CM are not readily explained by I_to changes alone. Moreover, angiotensin II, the synthesis of which in heart cells accompanies the altered stress/strain patterns imposed by ventricular pacing, seems to be involved in initiating CM,⁷ perhaps by suppressing I_to.⁸

The cellular responses to repeated ventricular stimulation that characterize CM have a parallel in neurons. For example, in aplysia, rapid, transcription-independent and long-term, transcription-dependent mechanisms are involved in long-term potentiation learning and memory (for review, see Reference 9). The signaling pathway includes serotonergic activation of cAMP and protein kinase A and angiotensin II–associated mechanisms linking to protein kinase C.^9–12 Both pathways incorporate a role for Ca²⁺ as a critical messenger facilitating both short-term neuronal plasticity and long-term information storage.⁹

Given our inability to explain the evolution of CM solely on the basis of I_to and using the central nervous system as a paradigm, we have now studied calcium modulation of CM. Experiments were performed in intact dogs, isolated tissues,¹³ and disaggregated ventricular epicardial myocytes.

	Methods

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All protocols were approved by the Columbia University and State University of New York at Stony Brook Animal Care and Use committees.

Intact Animal Study
Protocols for Short-Term Memory
Mongrel dogs of either sex weighing 22 to 26 kg were premedicated with morphine sulfate 3 mg/kg IM and anesthetized with -chloralose 100 mg/kg IV supplemented as needed during the experiment. Animals were intubated and ventilated with humidified room air. The femoral artery and the cephalic vein were catheterized to monitor blood pressure and maintain drug or placebo infusion, respectively. A heating pad was used to maintain body temperature.

The heart was suspended in a pericardial cradle via a thoracotomy at the fifth left intercostal space. Platinum bipolar electrodes were sewn epicardially to the left atrial appendage and the inferolateral left ventricular wall.

Dogs were divided into 3 groups: control (n=6) (intravenous placebo infusion), intravenous nifedipine (n=6), and intravenous propranolol (n=5) and studied according to a previously described protocol,⁴ as follows: equilibration during atrial pacing at a cycle length (CL) of 400 ms for 15 minutes; drug or placebo infusion for 30 minutes; and two 1-hour periods of ventricular pacing (VP) from the inferolateral left ventricular wall site at a CL of 400 ms, with each run followed by 20 minutes of atrial pacing at a CL of 400 ms. ECGs were recorded online, and 3-mL blood samples were drawn before drug and before and at the end of the VP and atrial pacing periods.

Protocol for Long-Term Memory
Dogs were anesthetized with propofol 6 mg/kg IV and inhalational isoflurane (1.5% to 2.5%). After intubation and ventilation and under sterile conditions, a thoracotomy was performed as above, and epicardial unipolar leads (model 4965, Medtronic) were attached to the inferolateral left ventricular wall and left atrial appendage. The leads were connected to a dual-chamber pacemaker (Prodigy DR, Medtronic) affixed subcutaneously. One platinum bipolar electrode was sewn to the left atrial appendage epicardium to permit bipolar atrial pacing for ECG recordings. Animals recovered for 2 to 3 weeks, during which they were laboratory trained and the ECG was stabilized.

All animals underwent 2 DDD pacing protocols of 21 days each (PR interval=50 to 60 ms to minimize competing and fusion beats). A 3-week recovery period for CM "washout" separated the protocols. Lower and upper tracking rates were 120 and 150 bpm, respectively. The extent of capture was evaluated in the laboratory twice during the first week and once weekly thereafter. Rate histograms were monitored throughout each week. In all dogs, the number of paced beats exceeded 90%, and no fusion was seen during daily observations.

ECGs were recorded before pacing was initiated and on days 7, 14, and 21 of DDD pacing. For all ECG recordings of CM, DDD pacing was turned off for 15 minutes and recordings were made during atrial pacing (AOO mode) at a CL of 500 ms in conscious dogs resting on the right side. We then returned to the DDD mode to continue the protocol.

Dogs were assigned to one of the following drug groups: amlodipine (n=6), atenolol (n=6), candesartan (n=3), or trandolapril (n=6). Amlodipine and atenolol were substituted for nifedipine and propranolol because they could be administered BID rather than the QID that would otherwise have been necessary. Dogs in each group except candesartan were randomized to 1 of 2 protocols: 3 received drug treatment during the initial 21-day pacing protocol and were drug-free during the second. The other 3 were drug-free during the first 21-day protocol and received drug during the second. One dog in the candesartan group received drug during an initial 14-day pacing protocol, and 2 dogs received candesartan during a second 14-day pacing protocol, with the other pacing protocol being control.

ECG Recordings
ECGs were recorded and frontal plane vector images plotted with Dr Vetter PC-EKG software (Dr Vetter, Baden Baden, Germany) as we described previously.⁴ QRS and QT intervals were read by 2 independent investigators from at least 5 consecutive complexes at each experimental time point, and averaged values were analyzed. The QT interval was measured from the onset of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave (defined as its return to the T/P baseline). Flat T waves with an amplitude of <0.1 mV were considered unmeasurable. The maximum value across 6 leads was considered the QT interval.

CM was quantified as a function of T-wave vector amplitude and angle changes and expressed as the distance between frontal plane T-wave vector peaks recorded during atrial pacing at VP0 and at each subsequent time point (T-wave vector displacement, in mV) as described previously.⁴

Drug Administration
Short-Term Memory
Nifedipine and propranolol were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. Placebo was isotonic 0.9% NaCl (Baxter Healthcare). Nifedipine was administered as a 30-µg/kg IV bolus followed by a 3-µg · kg^-1 · min^-1 infusion. For propranolol, we used a 0.75-mg/kg IV bolus followed by a 0.01-mg · kg^-1 · min^-1 infusion.

Long-Term Memory
Amlodipine (Norvasc, Pfizer) was purchased through the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center pharmacy and atenolol from Sigma-Aldrich Inc. Candesartan and trandolapril were generous gifts of AstraZeneca and Knoll AG, respectively.

All drugs were given orally throughout the protocol. Amlodipine and atenolol administration started 3 to 5 days before initiation of VP, and candesartan and trandolapril, 7 days before VP. Drug doses were as follows: amlodipine, 1 mg/kg BID; candesartan, 3 mg · kg^-1 · d^-1; trandolapril, 10 mg · kg^-1 · d^-1; and for atenolol, 3 dogs received 200 mg BID and 3 dogs an initial dose of 400 mg BID that was increased to 800 mg BID during the protocol.

Drug Levels
Blood was centrifuged at 10 000 rpm for 30 minutes, and plasma was stored at -70°C. Drug levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Propranolol was quantified as previously described¹⁴ with 4'-methylpropranolol as internal standard. Nifedipine was extracted on solid-phase C₁₈ Bond-Elut columns and analyzed further on a 3-µm Microsorb C₁₈ column eluted with acetonitrile/methanol/water/acetic acid (31/20/49/1, vol/vol, adjusted to pH 4 with NH₄OH) running at 1 mL/min and 40°C. The internal standard was nisoldipine.

Isolated Tissue Studies
Adult mongrel dogs were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital 30 mg/kg IV. Hearts were rapidly removed and placed in ice-cold Tyrode’s solution containing (in mmol/L) NaCl 131, KCl 4, NaHCO₃ 18, NaH₂PO₄ 1.8, MgCl₂ 0.5, CaCl₂ 2.7, and dextrose 5.5, equilibrated with 95% O₂–5% CO₂. Left ventricular epicardial and endocardial slabs (2x3 to 2x4 cm) were prepared as described previously¹³ and placed in a Lucite chamber perfused at 15 mL/min with Tyrode’s solution at 37±0.2°C. Transmembrane potentials were recorded with glass microelectrodes as described previously.⁴

Muscles were equilibrated for 4 to 5 hours and stimulated with rectangular pulses 0.5 to 1.5 ms in duration and 1.5 to 2 times diastolic threshold. One stimulating electrode was positioned at the basal end of the preparation such that impulses initiated here could proceed parallel to fiber orientation, simulating normal activation. During control, the preparation was paced through this electrode at a CL of 650 ms. A second stimulating electrode was positioned at the lateral border of each slab such that impulses initiated here originated perpendicular to the fiber axis. Three 20-minute periods of pacing at a CL of 450 ms were initiated from the lateral site, thereby altering activation sequence and rate and simulating VP. Each rapid pacing period with changed activation was interrupted by pacing from the basal end of the preparation at a CL of 650 ms for 30 minutes. This protocol was identical to those in our original in vivo and in vitro studies,^13,15 which consistently evoked CM.

Transmembrane potentials recorded simultaneously from subepicardial and subendocardial muscle slabs were led into one side of a differential amplifier (model DAM 50, WPI), and the difference signal was recorded concurrently with the transmembrane potentials on a strip-chart recorder. Because it is not possible to reproduce the physiological endocardial-to-epicardial activation sequence in vitro, both AP upstrokes were superimposed during simulated normal activation. The area of the repolarization ("T") wave in the difference signal was planimetered and expressed in square centimeters.

Single-Myocyte Studies
Three controls and 3 dogs manifesting CM after 21 days of pacing were anesthetized, and left ventricular epicardial myocytes were dissociated as previously described.⁶ Cells were stored in KB solution at room temperature for >1 hour before electrophysiological experiments. KB solution contained (in mmol/L) KCl 83, K₂HPO₄ 30, MgSO₄ 5, Na-pyruvic acid 5, ß-hydroxybutyric acid (sodium salt) 5, taurine 20, glucose 10, EGTA 0.5, HEPES 5, Na₂ATP 5, and creatine 5, titrated to pH 7.2 with KOH.

Isolated cells were maintained at 32°C to 35°C (±0.5°C in each experiment). I_Ca,L was recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp technique. I_Ca,L amplitude was defined as the difference between the peak inward value and the current at the end of the test pulse (500 ms). Capacitance was measured from the voltage response to a constant hyperpolarizing current of 100 pA. Pipettes were filled with solution containing (in mmol/L) NaCl 6, K-aspartate 130, MgCl₂ 2, EGTA 11, and HEPES 10 (pH adjusted to 7.2 with KOH). The external solution contained (in mmol/L) NaCl 137.7, NaOH 2.3, MgCl₂ 1, glucose 10, HEPES 5, KCl 5.4, BaCl₂ 5, and tetrodotoxin 0.02, pH 7.4.

To evaluate the I_Ca,L contribution to APD, we constructed the peak inward I_Ca,L-V relation and determined the voltage dependence of the time constant of I_Ca,L inactivation. To construct the I-V relationship, we held the membrane at -65 mV and depolarized to test voltages from -30 to +80 mV in 10-mV increments.

Statistics
Data from intact animals and isolated tissue studies were analyzed by 2-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Subsequent analysis was performed with Bonferroni’s test or the Games-Howell test as appropriate. One-way repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to analyze the influence of one factor on a dependent variable. In ion-channel studies, Student’s t test was used. Data are presented as mean±SEM; a value of P<0.05 was considered significant.

	Results

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Intact Animal Studies
Short-Term Memory
CM evolution in control experiments and during nifedipine or propranolol administration is depicted in Figure 1. In the controls, the T-wave vector was displaced from baseline and then declined toward baseline during each recovery period. Nifedipine plasma levels were 209±80 and 209±92 ng/mL at the start and end of VP, respectively (P>0.05). Propranolol plasma levels were 315±50 and 370±132 ng/mL at the start and end, respectively (P>0.05). Nifedipine decreased T-wave vector displacement significantly, whereas propranolol had no effect. Neither drug altered QRS complexes or QT intervals (data not shown). A representative experiment is shown in Figure 2.

View larger version (43K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Evolution of short-term CM in control (placebo) and during nifedipine or propranolol administration. Baseline=0 for all. In placebo, T-wave vector displacement reaches a maximum after termination of each VP period and diminishes during each recovery period. Propranolol has no effect on curve, whereas nifedipine suppresses it (P<0.05 nifedipine vs placebo=propranolol).

View larger version (54K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Evolution of CM. Top, Frontal plane T-wave vectors; bottom, ECG. For protocol, see text. Left, baseline recordings (during atrial pacing) in control, VP, and 0 and 20 minutes of atrial pacing during second recovery period after VP. Right, comparable recordings after 30-minute infusion of nifedipine. Whereas T-wave and vector changes clearly occur in left panels, minimal changes are seen in presence of nifedipine.

Long-Term Memory
Amlodipine had no consistent effects on QRS duration or QT interval of atrially paced complexes (data not shown). Figure 3 demonstrates that amlodipine significantly reduced the accumulation of CM. In contrast, neither atenolol, trandolapril, nor candesartan altered CM accumulation (Figure 3B).

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. A, Evolution of long-term CM in placebo- and amlodipine-treated dogs. T-wave vector displacement just before commencement of pacing on day 0 (VP0) is set to 0. Measurements on days 7, 14, and 21 demonstrate a greater accumulation of T-wave vector change during control compared with amlodipine (*P<0.05). B, Evolution of long-term CM in placebo, combined atenolol protocols, trandolapril, and candesartan-treated dogs. Control curves for each drug do not differ from one another. There is no effect of drug treatment (all P>0.05 vs control).

Isolated Tissue Model of Short-Term Memory
AP characteristics are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Control values for maximum diastolic potential (epicardium, -83±0.4 mV; endocardium, -86±0.3 mV), AP overshoot (12±1.7 and 31±1.0 mV, respectively), and (192±14 and 204±18 V/sec, respectively) did not change during the protocol and were not significantly affected by nifedipine; hence, they are not reported further.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 1. Control: Action Potential Characteristics

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 2. Nifedipine: Action Potential Characteristics

In control epicardium, there were small increases in the epicardial notch and plateau height and in APD₃₀ and APD₉₀ and an increase in endocardial APD₃₀ by the end of the pacing protocol (Table 1). Nifedipine significantly increased the depth of the AP notch while depressing the plateau in epicardium and reducing the plateau and APD₃₀ in endocardium (Table 2). The changes described above in the presence of pacing were markedly attenuated by nifedipine (Table 2 and Figure 4).

View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Microelectrode experiments showing epicardial (EPI) and endocardial (ENDO) AP and resultant difference signals (records traced from originals). Top, no drug; bottom, nifedipine (Nif). Co indicates control traces during antegrade activation; St, traces during first period of perpendicular stimulation; R1–R3, first, second, and third recovery periods during antegrade activation 30 minutes after end of perpendicular stimulation. Difference signal is displayed beneath each AP, with "T wave" indicated by arrow. Note progressive alterations in AP contours and, especially, change in "T wave" of difference signal by end of R3. Bottom, after addition of nifedipine (Co+Nif), T wave changes. Subsequent imposition of pacing protocol results in no further T-wave changes during R1–R3.

Although the AP changes were small, their expression in the transmural gradient was significant (Table 3). With pacing alone, a significant change in repolarization evolved by the third postpacing period. With nifedipine, the major change occurred with drug alone, and no further alteration was seen with pacing.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 3. Changes in T-Wave Area of the Difference Signal Between Endocardium and Epicardium After Repeated Changes in Activation Sequence and Stimulation Rate

Single-Myocyte Studies of Long-Term Memory
Figure 5 shows I/V relationships for I_Ca,L. Maximum I_Ca,L in control and CM myocytes did not differ significantly. However, the I-V relation was shifted to more positive potentials in memory, indicated by the overall position of the I-V relation on the voltage axis and also by the 10-mV positive shift of the potential at which peak I_Ca,L occurs (0 mV control, +10 mV memory).

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 5. ICa,L peak inward I-V relationship in 12 control (Con) and 12 memory (CM) myocytes. Holding potential = -65 mV. Cells were depolarized from -30 to +80 mV with voltage increments of 10 mV and pulse durations of 500 ms. I-V relation was constructed by dividing inward currents by capacitance and plotting them against voltages at which they were elicited.

Figure 6 compares the time constant of inactivation in control and CM myocytes. There was a 10-mV positive shift in the voltage at which the minimum time constant occurs in memory (0 mV control, +10 mV memory). Furthermore, the time constants of inactivation were longer at each membrane voltage in memory than in control (eg, at +10 mV, control=40±3 ms, n=12; memory=81±3 ms, n=12; P<0.05). Thus, at potentials in the plateau voltage range (>10 mV), peak I_Ca,L is greater and its inactivation slower in CM.

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 6. ICa,L inactivation in myocytes isolated from control (Con) and CM myocytes. Raw current traces elicited in response to test voltages from -10 to +40 mV (Con) and from 0 to +50 mV (CM) are at top left and right, respectively. Middle (left, Con; right, CM), corresponding fitted traces (dotted lines indicate raw data; solid lines, best single-exponential fit). Time constants of inactivation for both groups are plotted in bottom panel. n=12 cells per group (P<0.05).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
I_Ca,L blockade but not ß-adrenergic blockade prevents induction of CM by both short- and long-term pacing protocols. Although we had previously shown that ACE inhibition or angiotensin II receptor blockade suppresses short-term CM induced by 2 hours of pacing,⁷ we have now found that ACE inhibition (trandolapril) and AT₁ receptor blockade (candesartan) do not suppress long-term CM. These results suggest that modulation of calcium handling may be important in initiating and sustaining CM and that angiotensin II is involved in initiation but not sustenance. Previous studies have demonstrated that angiotensin II increases I_Ca,L,^16–18 which may contribute to initiation of CM.

The fact that ß-adrenergic blockade did not alter short- or long-term CM induction is important for 2 reasons: first, ß-adrenergic stimulation is an important modulator of I_Ca,L. Second, the cAMP-CREB pathway is important to the evolution of neuronal memory.⁹ We have shown that CREB levels are altered when the heart is paced to induce CM, a process blocked by saralasin or nifedipine.¹⁹ This increases the likelihood that initiation of memory and involvement of CREB as a transcription factor are important in heart and is associated with a role for angiotensin II.

I_Ca,L kinetics rather than current density seems to be important in the evolution of long-term CM. Specifically, I_Ca,L activation threshold is more positive and its inactivation is slower in CM than in control myocytes. These changes may contribute to the AP of CM as follows: we have previously demonstrated that long-term CM is associated with several changes in AP configuration. In epicardial myocytes, these changes include a decreased phase 1 notch, increased plateau amplitude, and longer APD and plateau.³ We have also reported that the decreased notch results from a decreased I_to density associated with a positive shift in activation threshold and a prolonged time constant for recovery from inactivation.⁶ The I_to changes occur in epicardium but not endocardium (which has little I_to), whereas the changes in plateau height and APD occur in epicardium and endocardium. The changes described in I_Ca,L kinetics in the present study could easily contribute to the increased APD and plateau height in both tissues.

The finding that Ca channel blockade suppresses short- and long-term CM provides a messenger that is involved in a variety of control processes in heart and that plays a role in neuronal plasticity as well.⁹ Although the transcription and translation involved in the processing of CM remain to be investigated, it is clear that Ca will play a central role. Whether the process relates to angiotensin II action, stretch-activated receptors, or other mechanisms remains to be determined. However, the finding of a consistent role for calcium coupled with our previous finding³ that protein synthesis inhibition suppresses long-term CM argues in favor of fundamental changes in the signaling processes that control the ion channels determining repolarization.

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was supported by US Public Health Service, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, grants HL-28958, HL-67101, and HL-20558 and the Bawd Foundation. Dr Yu is the recipient of an AHA Scientist Development Award. We express our gratitude to Drs Natalia Egorova and Irina Golyakhovsky for their assistance in performing certain of the studies and to Eileen Franey for her careful attention to the preparation of the manuscript.

	Footnotes

 
*The first 3 authors contributed equally to this work.

Received December 20, 2002; revision received February 27, 2003; accepted March 6, 2003.

	References

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				K. W. Patberg, M. N. Obreztchikova, S. F. Giardina, A. J. Symes, A. N. Plotnikov, J. Qu, P. Chandra, D. McKinnon, S. R. Liou, A. V. Rybin, et al. The cAMP response element binding protein modulates expression of the transient outward current: Implications for cardiac memory Cardiovasc Res, November 1, 2005; 68(2): 259 - 267. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. J. Janse, E. A. Sosunov, R. Coronel, T. Opthof, E. P. Anyukhovsky, J. M.T. de Bakker, A. N. Plotnikov, I. N. Shlapakova, P. Danilo Jr, J. G.P. Tijssen, et al. Repolarization Gradients in the Canine Left Ventricle Before and After Induction of Short-Term Cardiac Memory Circulation, September 20, 2005; 112(12): 1711 - 1718. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S.-m. Hwang, T. Y. Kim, and K. J. Lee From The Cover: Complex-periodic spiral waves in confluent cardiac cell cultures induced by localized inhomogeneities PNAS, July 19, 2005; 102(29): 10363 - 10368. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Shvilkin, K. K.L. Ho, M. R. Rosen, and M. E. Josephson T-Vector Direction Differentiates Postpacing From Ischemic T-Wave Inversion in Precordial Leads Circulation, March 1, 2005; 111(8): 969 - 974. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Nahlawi, M. Waligora, S. M. Spies, R. O. Bonow, A. H. Kadish, and J. J. Goldberger Left ventricular function during and after right ventricular pacing J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., November 2, 2004; 44(9): 1883 - 1888. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. J. Moss The heart does not have Alzheimer's disease: Electrical and mechanical cardiac memory after ventricular pacing J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., November 2, 2004; 44(9): 1889 - 1890. [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. N. Plotnikov, E. A. Sosunov, K. W. Patberg, E. P. Anyukhovsky, R. Z. Gainullin, I. N. Shlapakova, G. Krishnamurthy, P. Danilo Jr, and M. R. Rosen Cardiac Memory Evolves With Age in Association With Development of the Transient Outward Current Circulation, August 3, 2004; 110(5): 489 - 495. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Zoghi and S. Nalbantgil Electrical stunning and hibernation: suggestion of new terms for short- and long-term cardiac memory Europace, January 1, 2004; 6(5): 418 - 424. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. W. Patberg and M. R. Rosen On the Role of the cAMP Response Element Binding Protein in Long-Term Cardiac Memory Circ. Res., October 31, 2003; 93(9): e87 - 87. [Full Text]

				M. R. Rosen, O. Binah, and S. Marom Cardiac Memory and Cortical Memory: Do Learning Patterns in Neural Networks Impact on Cardiac Arrhythmias? Circulation, October 14, 2003; 108(15): 1784 - 1789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. W. Patberg, A. N. Plotnikov, A. Quamina, R. Z. Gainullin, A. Rybin, P. Danilo Jr, L. S. Sun, and M. R. Rosen Cardiac Memory Is Associated With Decreased Levels of the Transcriptional Factor CREB Modulated by Angiotensin II and Calcium Circ. Res., September 5, 2003; 93(5): 472 - 478. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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