This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: 107/16/2089    most recent 01.CIR.0000065222.34933.FCv1 Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Henry, R. M.A. Articles by Stehouwer, C. D.A. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Henry, R. M.A. Articles by Stehouwer, C. D.A. Related Collections Epidemiology Remodeling Type 2 diabetes Glucose intolerance Other Vascular biology

(Circulation. 2003;107:2089.)
© 2003 American Heart Association, Inc.

Clinical Investigation and Reports

Arterial Stiffness Increases With Deteriorating Glucose Tolerance Status

The Hoorn Study

Ronald M.A. Henry, MD; Piet J. Kostense, PhD; Annemieke M.W. Spijkerman, PhD; Jacqueline M. Dekker, PhD; Giel Nijpels, MD, PhD; Robert J. Heine, MD, PhD; Otto Kamp, PhD; Nico Westerhof, PhD; Lex M. Bouter, PhD; Coen D.A. Stehouwer, MD, PhD

From the Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine (R.M.A.H., P.J.K., A.M.W.S., J.M.D., G.N., R.J.H., L.M.B., C.D.A.S.); Institute for Cardiovascular Research (R.M.A.H., A.M.W.S., O.K., N.W., C.D.A.S.); and Departments of Epidemiology and Biostatistics (P.J.K.), Physiology (N.W.), Endocrinology (R.J.H.), and Internal Medicine (C.D.A.S.), VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Correspondence to Professor C.D.A. Stehouwer, MD, PhD; Department of Internal Medicine, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail cda.stehouwer{at}vumc.nl

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Background— Type 2 diabetes (DM-2) and impaired glucose metabolism (IGM) are associated with an increased cardiovascular disease risk. In nondiabetic individuals, increased arterial stiffness is an important cause of cardiovascular disease. Associations between DM-2 and IGM and arterial stiffness have not been systematically investigated.

Methods and Results— In a population-based cohort (n=747; 278 with normal glucose metabolism, 168 with IGM, and 301 with DM-2; mean age, 68.5 years), arterial stiffness was ultrasonically estimated by distensibility and compliance of the carotid, femoral, and brachial arteries and by the carotid elastic modulus. After adjustment for age, sex, and mean arterial pressure, DM-2 was associated with increased carotid, femoral, and brachial stiffness, whereas IGM was associated only with increased femoral and brachial stiffness. Carotid but not femoral or brachial stiffness increased from IGM to DM-2. Standardized ßs (95% CI) for IGM and DM-2, compared with normal glucose metabolism, were -0.06 (-0.23 to 0.10) and -0.37 (-0.51 to -0.23) for carotid distensibility; -0.02 (-0.18 to 0.18) and -0.25 (-0.40 to -0.09) for carotid compliance; -0.05 (-0.23 to 0.13) and 0.25 (0.10 to 0.40) for carotid elastic modulus; -0.70 (-0.89 to -0.51) and -0.67 (-0.83 to -0.52) for femoral distensibility; and -0.62 (-0.80 to -0.44) and -0.79 (-0.94 to -0.63) for femoral compliance. The brachial artery followed a pattern similar to that of the femoral artery. Increases in stiffness indices were explained by decreases in distension, increases in pulse pressure, an increase in carotid intima-media thickness, and, for the femoral artery, a decrease in diameter. Hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia explained only 30% of the arterial changes associated with glucose tolerance. Adjustment for conventional cardiovascular risk factors did not affect these findings.

Conclusions— IGM and DM-2 are associated with increased arterial stiffness. An important part of the increased stiffness occurs before the onset of DM-2 and is explained neither by conventional cardiovascular risk factors nor by hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia.

Key Words: epidemiology • diabetes mellitus • glucose • remodeling • vasculature

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Type 2 diabetes (DM-2) is associated with a marked increase in risk of cardiovascular mortality.¹ An increased risk is already apparent in individuals with impaired glucose metabolism (IGM), ie, impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance.² The mechanisms responsible for this increased cardiovascular disease risk remain unclear. In nondiabetic individuals, increased arterial stiffness is an important cause of cardiovascular disease, because arterial stiffness leads to increased systolic pressure and ventricular mass and to decreased diastolic coronary perfusion.³ There is evidence that the metabolic alterations in DM-2 and IGM are associated with increased arterial stiffness,^4,5 but this has not been systematically investigated.

Arterial stiffness is a general term that encompasses properties such as distensibility, compliance, and elastic modulus.⁶ Such properties are not uniform along the arterial tree, and there may be important differences between elastic and muscular arteries.⁷ Previous studies of the association between DM-2 and arterial stiffness have been relatively small^5,8–15 and were limited to one type of artery^{4,9,11,12,14,15} or targeted selected populations,^13,15 whereas data on the association between arterial stiffness and IGM are scarce.^4,13,16

In view of these considerations, we examined, in a population-based cohort, associations between DM-2 and IGM, and carotid, femoral, and brachial stiffness.

	Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Study Population
For the present investigation, we used data from the 2000 Hoorn Study follow-up examination and, to increase the number of individuals with DM-2, data from a diabetes screening study, both of which were population-based.

The Hoorn Study is a cohort study of glucose metabolism in the general population (n=2484), which started in 1989.¹⁷ In 2000, a follow-up examination was carried out among all surviving participants who had given their permission to be recontacted. We invited all those who had diabetes, as determined by an oral glucose tolerance test, or who were treated for diabetes at the previous 1996 follow-up (n=176). Next, we invited random samples of individuals with normal glucose metabolism (NGM) (n=705) and IGM (n=193). Of 1074 individuals thus invited, 648 (60%) participated. Additionally, we invited 217 individuals with DM-2 from the Hoorn Screening Study,¹⁸ 188 (87%) of whom participated.

All participants underwent a glucose tolerance test, except those with previously diagnosed diabetes (n=67). Data on 14 individuals were missing because of logistical problems. Glucose tolerance was defined according to the 1999 WHO criteria.¹⁹ The study population (n=822) thus consisted of 3 groups: 290 with NGM, 187 with IGM, and 345 with DM-2.

Nonparticipants
Among the 455 nonparticipants (53% women), 13% were complete nonresponders. The remaining nonparticipants gave the following various reasons not to participate: lack of interest (30%), comorbidity (23%), age (7%), unwillingness to travel (6%), participation too time-consuming (6%), and miscellaneous reasons (15%).

Informed Consent
The local ethics committee approved the study. All participants gave their written informed consent.

General Procedures
Blood Pressure Measurements
Brachial systolic and diastolic pressures were assessed in the left upper arm at 5-minute intervals with an oscillometric device (Collin Press-Mate, BP-8800). Brachial pulse pressure was calculated as systolic minus diastolic pressure, and brachial mean arterial pressure (MAP) as (2 diastolic pressure+systolic pressure)/3. Pulse pressure at the carotid and femoral artery was calculated according to the calibration method described by Kelly and Fitchett,²⁰ with use of distension waveforms as adapted by Van Bortel et al.²¹ This method assumes a constant difference between MAP and diastolic pressure (DP) along the arterial tree.⁷ Pulse pressure can then be calculated at a target artery (PP_tar) from the pulse pressure at a reference artery (PP_ref) and a calibration factor (K) at target and reference arteries (K_tar and K_ref) by the formula:

in which K is defined as (MAP-DP)/PP, and (MAP-DP) can be calculated from the area under the pressure curve divided by time.^20,21

As an alternative approximation of carotid pressures,²² aortic pressures were derived by tonometry with a piezo-resistive pressure transducer (SPT-301, Millar Instruments) connected to a waveform analysis device (SphygmoCor, AtCor Medical). Briefly, after a left brachial pressure reading, the transducer was used to applanate the right radial artery. Pressure waveform data were then obtained during 3 consecutive 12-second periods. A generalized transfer function was then used to obtain the aortic waveform, which enabled calculation of aortic pressures from the individual’s oscillometrically derived pressure.^22–24

Arterial Properties
Diameter, Distension, and Intima-Media Thickness
A single observer unaware of the participants’ clinical or glucose tolerance status obtained properties of the right common carotid (10 mm proximal to the carotid bulb), the right common femoral (20 mm proximal to the flow divider), and the right brachial (20 mm proximal to the antecubital fossa) arteries, with the use of an ultrasound scanner equipped with an 7.5-MHz linear probe (350 Series, Pie Medical). The scanner was connected to a PC equipped with vessel wall movement detection software and an acquisition system (Wall Track System, Pie Medical). This setup enables measurements of diameter, distension, and intima-media thickness (IMT).^25,26 Briefly, after a 15-minute supine rest, the artery was visualized in B-mode. An M-line was then placed at the measurement site. After switching to M-mode, data acquisition in a real-time A-mode presentation on the computer screen was enabled after trackball-assisted identification of the arterial lumen. Data were then obtained during 3 consecutive 4-second measurements, triggered by the R-top of a simultaneously recorded ECG. The first radiofrequency signal was displayed on the screen, enabling the observer to check if the markers, positioned by the Wall Track System, coincided with the anterior and posterior wall reflections in the diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle. The cumulative radiofrequency signals were then digitized and stored. The change in diameter as a function of time (distension) was estimated and presented on the computer screen (distension waveform). Diastolic diameter was calculated as the difference in position between the anterior and posterior wall markers. Additionally, the carotid posterior wall IMT was calculated as the distance from the leading edge interface between lumen and intima to the leading edge interface between media and adventitia. The mean diameter, distension, and IMT of the 3 measurements were used in the analyses.

Arterial Stiffness Distensibility, Compliance, and Young’s Elastic Modulus
Distensibility and compliance coefficients were calculated from diameter, distension, and pulse pressure, as follows²⁷:

where D is distension, D is diameter, and P is pulse pressure.

The distensibility coefficient reflects the arterial elastic properties, whereas the compliance coefficient reflects the arterial buffering capacity. From IMT, diameter, and carotid distensibility, we calculated Young’s elastic modulus (E_inc), an indicator of the intrinsic elastic wall properties:

Reproducibility
Reproducibility was assessed in 10 individuals (5 men; 58.2±9.5 years) who were examined twice, 2 weeks apart. The intraobserver intersession coefficients of variation [CV=(standard deviation of the mean difference/2)/pooled mean] were as follows: carotid IMT, 10.9%; diameters, 2.9% (carotid), 2.5% (femoral), and 4.3% (brachial); distension, 5.3% (carotid), 11.6% (femoral), and 12.8% (brachial); distensibility coefficients, 7.0% (carotid), 11.3% (femoral), and 12.8% (brachial); compliance coefficients, 6.3% (carotid), 13.1% (femoral), and 13.9% (brachial); carotid elastic modulus, 11.6%; and aortic pressures, 5.2% (systolic), 3.4% (diastolic), 3.8% (pulse), and 3.2% (mean).

Other Measurements
Health status, medical history, current medication use, and smoking habits were assessed by a questionnaire.¹⁷ Glucose, glycated hemoglobin, serum total, high-density, and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides were determined as described elsewhere.¹⁸ Resting electrocardiograms were automatically coded according to the Minnesota Code,²⁸ and body mass index and the waist-to-hip ratio were calculated. Hypertension and prior cardiovascular disease were defined as described previously.^18,28,29

Statistical Analysis
All analyses were carried out with SPSS (SPSS). We used multiple linear regression analysis to investigate the associations between glucose tolerance and arterial properties. All associations were first analyzed without adjustments and then with adjustment for potential confounders. Because arterial stiffness is affected by age, sex, and MAP,⁷ these variables were considered first in the adjusted models. We used brachial MAP for all adjustments, because MAP is constant throughout the arterial tree⁷ and because brachial pressures were determined more precisely (because of the greater number of observations). After we had assessed the main effects, interaction terms were used to investigate whether the association between glucose tolerance and arterial properties differed according to age or gender.²⁷ P<0.05 was considered statistically significant, except for the interaction analyses, where we used P<0.10.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Ultrasound Examinations
Of the 822 participants, 18 did not take part in the ultrasound examination for logistical reasons; in 8, data collection failed for technical reasons. In the remaining 796 individuals, qualitatively satisfactory examinations were obtained of 747 carotid, 689 brachial, and 665 femoral arteries. The main reason for missing data was poor definition of the arterial wall attributable to obesity (body mass index of those with qualitatively satisfactory examinations versus those without, 26.9±3.3 versus 31.3±5.6 kg/m², P<0.001).

Baseline Characteristics
Table 1 shows the characteristics of the study population.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 1. Characteristics of the Study Population According to Glucose Tolerance

Arterial Properties
With deteriorating glucose tolerance, distension decreased, diameter decreased (only in the femoral artery), pulse pressure increased, and carotid IMT increased. As a result, arterial stiffness, whether expressed as the distensibility coefficient, the compliance coefficient, or as Young’s elastic modulus, increased with deteriorating glucose tolerance (Table 2). Compared with NGM, DM-2 was significantly associated with increased carotid, femoral, and brachial stiffness, whereas IGM was only significantly associated with increased femoral and brachial stiffness (Table 3). In general, these associations were partially explained by MAP with a particularly strong effect for the carotid stiffness indices in IGM (Table 3). When compared with IGM, DM-2 was significantly associated only with an increase of carotid stiffness.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 2. Arterial Wall Properties According to Glucose Tolerance

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 3. Stiffness Indices According to Glucose Tolerance: Adjusted Analyses

Table 3 shows stiffness indices but does not provide insight into which of the elements of the indices (distension, diameter, pulse pressure, or IMT) drives the changes. Table 4 shows that the association between DM-2 and increased stiffness was driven by a decrease in distension (significantly so in the femoral and brachial arteries), a decrease in diameter (in the femoral artery), an increase in pulse pressure (all arteries), and, for elastic modulus, an increase in carotid IMT. The association between IGM and arterial stiffness was primarily driven by a decrease in distension (significantly so in the femoral and brachial arteries).

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 4. Individual Elements of the Arterial Stiffness Formulas and Their Association With Glucose Tolerance

Additional Analyses
Interactions Between Glucose Tolerance and Age and Sex
The impact of deteriorating glucose tolerance on arterial stiffness may be worse in women and with increasing age.^4,30 Overall, however, we found no such interactions, except that the association of deteriorating glucose tolerance with brachial pulse pressure was stronger in men (P=0.04) and that, with femoral artery, compliance was stronger in men (P=0.002) and in younger individuals (P=0.001; data not shown).

Impact of Glucose and Insulin
To estimate the contribution of hyperglycemia and of hyperinsulinemia to the increase in stiffness associated with IGM and DM-2, we compared the above analyses with those adjusted for HbA1c (or fasting or postload glucose) and for insulin. This showed that at most one third of the arterial changes associated with IGM and DM-2 could be explained by hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia (data not shown).

Alternative Estimation of Carotid and Femoral Pulse Pressure
Results were qualitatively similar when we used brachial or tonometry-derived instead of distension-waveform–calibrated pulse pressure. However, compared with distension-waveform–calibrated pulse pressure, brachial pulse pressure overestimated carotid and underestimated femoral stiffness, whereas tonometry-derived pulse pressure overestimated carotid stiffness. For example, the carotid distensibility coefficients in NGM calculated with brachial, calibrated, or tonometric pressures were 11.90, 12.82, and 14.67 10^-3 kPa^-1 (other data not shown).

Impact of Additional Adjustments
Results were similar when additionally adjusted for lipid profile, use of lipid-lowering or antihypertensive medication, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, smoking, (micro-) albuminuria, or prior cardiovascular disease (data not shown).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
This population-based study of glucose tolerance and arterial stiffness had 4 main findings. First, after adjustment for age, sex, and MAP, DM-2 was associated with increased arterial stiffness of both elastic (carotid) and muscular (femoral and brachial) arteries, whereas IGM was associated with increased stiffness of the muscular arteries. Second, carotid but not femoral or brachial stiffness increased from IGM to DM-2, suggesting that an important part of the increased stiffness occurs before the onset of DM-2. Third, increases in stiffness indices were explained by decreases in distension, increases in pulse pressure, an increase in carotid IMT, and, for the femoral artery, a decrease in diameter. Fourth, indices of hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia explained at most one third of the arterial changes associated with IGM and DM-2.

Our study was comprehensive and had important advantages over previous investigations, which were relatively small,^{5,8–12,14,31} concerned selected populations,¹³ and targeted only 1 type of artery.^{4,8–12,14,31,32} None of these studies determined how increases in arterial stiffness associated with IGM and DM-2 were driven by changes in distension, diameter, and pulse pressure. Additionally, our study is among the first³³ to estimate local pulse pressure by distension waveform calibration, which is more accurate than brachial pulse pressure.²¹ Our data are in agreement with the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study, which also showed that DM-2 was associated with increased carotid stiffness.⁴

We showed that both IGM and DM-2 were associated with increased arterial stiffness (both decreased distensibility and compliance) but that an important part of these changes occurred before the onset of DM-2. Arterial stiffness is thought to increase risk of cardiovascular disease through several mechanisms.³⁴ These findings may thus partially explain why both IGM and DM-2 are associated with an increased cardiovascular disease risk.

Decreased distension and increased pulse pressure contributed importantly to increased arterial stiffness. These changes are thought to be related to quantitative and qualitative alterations in arterial wall elastin and collagen.³⁵ Our results suggest that such alterations may be caused by factors other than short-term hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia, such as carbonyl and oxidative stress, chronic low-grade inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction,³⁶ including that caused by long-term hyperglycemia and formation of advanced glycation end products. Interestingly, Kass et al³⁷ recently showed that arterial stiffness in elderly, nondiabetic individuals could be reduced by the use of a novel advanced glycation end product crosslink breaker.

As glucose tolerance deteriorated, femoral diameter decreased but carotid and brachial diameter increased, indicating arterial remodeling, ie, the change of structural arterial properties through time in response to alterations in the arterial environment, in hemodynamics, or in vessel wall material.³⁸ Arterial remodeling is thought to keep tensile stress and endothelial shear stress within certain limits of operation³⁸; it is not clear whether the preservation of arterial compliance despite vessel wall stiffening is also a goal of remodeling. From the viewpoint of arterial remodeling, the increase in brachial and carotid diameter may serve to decrease endothelial shear stress and preserve compliance; the increase in carotid IMT could, at least partially, be viewed as a compensatory response to counteract the increased wall stress brought about by the diameter increase (Laplace’s law). The decrease in femoral diameter may represent more advanced atherosclerosis, in which the initial compensatory widening response ultimately fails and finally results in arterial narrowing.³⁹ The mechanisms through which diabetes and IGM affect arterial remodeling are unknown and require additional investigation.⁴⁰

It is uncertain whether sex and age modify the relationship between glucose tolerance and arterial stiffness.^4,41 In our data, the associations of glucose tolerance with femoral compliance and brachial pulse pressure were stronger in men, whereas associations with carotid stiffness indices were similar between both sexes. In contrast, the ARIC study reported a stronger association of glucose with carotid stiffness in women.⁴ However, this finding did not hold at a follow-up examination. We found that the association of glucose tolerance and femoral compliance decreased with increasing age but that associations with other stiffness indices were not modified by age. This contrasts somewhat with our earlier finding of a stronger association between age and brachial pulse pressure in diabetic compared with nondiabetic individuals.⁴¹ This could potentially be explained by differences in composition of the study population as well as by chance.

Our study had several limitations. First, our findings were obtained in the elderly. Therefore, we may have underestimated the association of arterial stiffness with glucose tolerance because of selective mortality of individuals with diabetes and stiff arteries. Second, we used a novel method to determine carotid IMT based on a single point measurement technique.²⁵ However, this method has shown an excellent correlation with B-mode measurements⁴²; both are strongly related to age and blood pressure,⁴³ which was also the case in the present study (data not shown). Additionally, we minimized measurement variation related to IMT variability along the artery by clearly defining where the measurements were taken. Finally, data were obtained in a white population, and therefore it remains to be established whether these results can be generalized to other ethnicities. We conclude that both IGM and DM-2 are associated with increased arterial stiffness. An important part of the increased arterial stiffness occurs before the onset of DM-2 and is not explained by indices of hyperglycemia or hyperinsulinemia. These data provide a pathophysiological framework for understanding why glucose tolerance is associated with an increased risk of stiffness-related complications.

	Acknowledgments

 
This study was financially supported by the Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant No. 98154).

Received November 26, 2002; revision received February 7, 2003; accepted February 7, 2003.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 

1. Pyorala K, Laakso M, Uusitupa M. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: an epidemiologic view. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1987; 3: 463–524.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
2. de Vegt F, Dekker JM, Ruhe HG, et al. Hyperglycaemia is associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the Hoorn population: the Hoorn Study. Diabetologia. 1999; 42: 926–931.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
3. Westerhof N, O’Rourke MF. Haemodynamic basis for the development of left ventricular failure in systolic hypertension and for its logical therapy. J Hypertens. 1995; 13: 943–952.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
4. Salomaa V, Riley W, Kark JD, et al. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and fasting glucose and insulin concentrations are associated with arterial stiffness indexes: the ARIC Study. Circulation. 1995; 91: 1432—1443.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
   
5. Emoto M, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Stiffness indexes beta of the common carotid and femoral arteries are associated with insulin resistance in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1998; 21: 1178–1182.[Abstract]
   
6. O’Rourke MF, Staessen JA, Vlachopoulos C, et al. Clinical applications of arterial stiffness: definitions and reference values. Am J Hypertens. 2002; 15: 426–444.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
7. Nichols WW, O’Rourke MF, Hartley C, et al, eds. McDonald’s Blood Flow in Arteries: Theoretical, Experimental and Clinical Principles. 4th ed. London, UK: Edward Arnold; 1998.
   
8. Wahlqvist ML, Relf IR, Myers KA, et al. Diabetes and macrovascular disease: risk factors for atherogenesis and non-invasive investigation of arterial disease. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1984; 38: 175–184.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
9. Lo CS, Relf IR, Myers KA, et al. Doppler ultrasound recognition of preclinical changes in arterial wall in diabetic subjects: compliance and pulse-wave damping. Diabetes Care. 1986; 9: 27–31.[Abstract]
   
10. Wahlqvist ML, Lo CS, Myers KA, et al. Putative determinants of arterial wall compliance in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1988; 11: 787–790.[Abstract]
    
11. Megnien JL, Simon A, Valensi P, et al. Comparative effects of diabetes mellitus and hypertension on physical properties of human large arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 20: 1562–1568.[Abstract]
    
12. Lehmann ED, Gosling RG, Sonksen PH. Arterial wall compliance in diabetes. Diabet Med. 1992; 9: 114–119.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
13. Amar J, Chamontin B, Pelissier M, et al. Influence of glucose metabolism on nycthemeral blood pressure variability in hypertensives with an elevated waist-hip ratio. Am J Hypertens. 1995; 8: 426–428.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
14. Tanokuchi S, Okada S, Ota Z. Factors related to aortic pulse-wave velocity in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Int Med Res. 1995; 23: 423–430.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
15. Taniwaki H, Shoji T, Emoto M, et al. Femoral artery wall thickness and stiffness in evaluation of peripheral vascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 158: 207–214.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
16. van Dijk RA, Dekker JM, Nijpels G, et al. Brachial artery pulse pressure and common carotid artery diameter: mutually independent associations with mortality in subjects with a recent history of impaired glucose tolerance. Eur J Clin Invest. 2001; 31: 756–763.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
17. Mooy JM, Grootenhuis PA, de Vries H, et al. Prevalence and determinants of glucose intolerance in a Dutch Caucasian population: the Hoorn study. Diabetes Care. 1995; 18: 1270–1273.[Abstract]
    
18. Spijkerman AMW, Adriaanse MC, Dekker JM, et al. Diabetic patients detected by population-based stepwise screening already have a "diabetic" cardiovascular risk profile. Diabetes Care. 2002; 25: 1784–1789.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
19. Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications, part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabetes Med. 1998; 15: 539–553.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
20. Kelly R, Fitchett D. Noninvasive determination of aortic input impedance and external left ventricular power output: a validation and repeatability study of a new technique. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 20: 952–963.[Abstract]
    
21. Van Bortel LM, Balkestein EJ, Van der Heiden Spek JJ, et al. Non-invasive assessment of local arterial pulse pressure: comparison of applanation tonometry and echo-tracking. J Hypertens. 2001; 19: 1037–1044.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
22. O’Rourke MF, Gallagher DE. Pulse wave analysis. J Hypertens. 1996; 14 (suppl): S147–S157.[CrossRef]
    
23. Karamanoglu M, O’Rourke MF, Avolio AP, et al. An analysis of the relationship between central aortic and peripheral upper limb pressure waves in man. Eur Heart J. 1993; 14: 160–167.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
24. Chen CH, Nevo E, Fetics B, et al. Estimation of central aortic pressure waveform by mathematical transformation of radial tonometry pressure: validation of generalized transfer function. Circulation. 1997; 95: 1827–1836.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
25. Hoeks AP, Willekes C, Boutouyrie P, et al. Automated detection of local artery wall thickness based on M-line signal processing. Ultrasound Med Biol. 1997; 23: 1017–1023.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
26. Hoeks AP, Brands PJ, Willigers JM, et al. Non-invasive measurement of mechanical properties of arteries in health and disease. Proc Inst Mech Eng. 1999; 213: 195–202.[CrossRef]
    
27. Van Bortel LM, Duprez D, Starmans-Kool MJ, et al. Clinical applications of arterial stiffness, task force (III): recommendations for user procedures. Am Heart J. 2002; 15: 445–452.
    
28. Prineas RJ. The Minnesota Code Manual of Electrocardiographic Findings: Standards and Procedures for Measurement and Classification. Boston, Mass: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1982.
    
29. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1997; 157: 2413–2446.[Abstract]
    
30. Franklin S. Do diabetes and hypertension interact to accelerate vascular aging? J Hypertens. 2002; 20: 1–9.[CrossRef]
    
31. Amar J, Ruidavets JB, Chamontin B, et al. Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular risk factors in a population-based study. J Hypertens. 2001; 19: 381–387.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
32. Hopkins KD, Lehmann ED, Jones RL, et al. A family history of NIDDM is associated with decreased aortic distensibility in normal healthy young adult subjects. Diabetes Care. 1996; 19: 501–503.[Abstract]
    
33. Staessen JA, Van der Heijden-Spek JJ, Safar ME, et al. Menopause and the characteristics of the large artery properties in a population study. J Hum Hypertens. 2001; 15: 511–518.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
34. Sowers JR, Lester MA. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care. 1999; 22 (suppl 3): C14–C20.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
35. Ulrich P, Cerami A. Protein glycation, diabetes, and aging. Recent Prog Horm Res. 2001; 56: 1–21.[Abstract]
    
36. Eckel RH, Wassef M, Chait A, et al. Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. Writing Group II: pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in diabetes. Circulation. 2002; 105: e138–e143.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
37. Kass DA, Shapiro EP, Kawaguchi M, et al. Improved arterial compliance by a novel advanced glycation end-product crosslink breaker. Circulation. 2001; 104: 1464–1470.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
38. Safar ME, London GM, Asmar R, et al. Recent advances on large arteries in hypertension. Hypertension. 1998; 32: 156–161.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
39. Pasterkamp G, Schoneveld AH, van Wolferen W, et al. The impact of atherosclerotic arterial remodeling on percentage of luminal stenosis varies widely within the arterial system. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997; 17: 3057–3063.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
40. Vink A, Pasterkamp G. Atherosclerotic plaque burden, plaque vulnerability and arterial remodeling: the role of inflammation. Minerva Cardioangiol. 2002; 50: 75–83.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
41. Schram MT, Kostense PJ, van Dijk RAJM, et al. Diabetes, pulse pressure and mortality in type 2 diabetes. J Hypertens. 2002; 20: 1743–1751.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
42. Willekes C, Hoeks AP, Bots ML, et al. Evaluation of off-line automated intima-media thickness detection of the common carotid artery based on M-line signal processing. Ultrasound Med Biol. 1999; 25: 57–64.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
43. Van Bortel LM, Vanmolkot FH, van der Heijden-Spek JJ, et al. Does B-mode common carotid artery intima-media thickness differ from M-mode? Ultrasound Med Biol. 2001; 27: 1333–1336.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    

This article has been cited by other articles:

				H. Du, D. L van der A, M. M. van Bakel, C. J. van der Kallen, E. E Blaak, M. M. van Greevenbroek, E. H. Jansen, G. Nijpels, C. D. Stehouwer, J. M Dekker, et al. Glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to food and nutrient intake and metabolic risk factors in a Dutch population Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 655 - 661. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. Giannattasio, M. Failla, A. Capra, E. Scanziani, M. Amigoni, L. Boffi, C. Whistock, P. Gamba, F. Paleari, and G. Mancia Increased Arterial Stiffness in Normoglycemic Normotensive Offspring of Type 2 Diabetic Parents Hypertension, February 1, 2008; 51(2): 182 - 187. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. W. B. Nanayakkara, C. van Guldener, P. M. ter Wee, P. G. Scheffer, F. J. van Ittersum, J. W. Twisk, T. Teerlink, W. van Dorp, and C. D. A. Stehouwer Effect of a Treatment Strategy Consisting of Pravastatin, Vitamin E, and Homocysteine Lowering on Carotid Intima-Media Thickness, Endothelial Function, and Renal Function in Patients With Mild to Moderate Chronic Kidney Disease: Results From the Anti-Oxidant Therapy in Chronic Renal Insufficiency (ATIC) Study Arch Intern Med, June 25, 2007; 167(12): 1262 - 1270. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. M.H. Hermans, R. Henry, J. M. Dekker, J. P. Kooman, P. J. Kostense, G. Nijpels, R. J. Heine, and C. D.A. Stehouwer Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate and Urinary Albumin Excretion Are Independently Associated with Greater Arterial Stiffness: The Hoorn Study J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., June 1, 2007; 18(6): 1942 - 1952. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Mancia, M. Bombelli, R. Facchetti, F. Madotto, G. Corrao, F. Q. Trevano, G. Grassi, and R. Sega Long-Term Prognostic Value of Blood Pressure Variability in the General Population: Results of the Pressioni Arteriose Monitorate e Loro Associazioni Study Hypertension, June 1, 2007; 49(6): 1265 - 1270. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Laurent, J. Cockcroft, L. Van Bortel, P. Boutouyrie, C. Giannattasio, D. Hayoz, B. Pannier, C. Vlachopoulos, I. Wilkinson, H. Struijker-Boudier, et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications Eur. Heart J., November 1, 2006; 27(21): 2588 - 2605. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. C. van Hove, T. Hansen, J. M. Dekker, E. Reiling, G. Nijpels, T. Jorgensen, K. Borch-Johnsen, Y. H. Hamid, R. J. Heine, O. Pedersen, et al. The HADHSC Gene Encoding Short-Chain L-3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA Dehydrogenase (SCHAD) and Type 2 Diabetes Susceptibility: The DAMAGE Study Diabetes, November 1, 2006; 55(11): 3193 - 3196. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. Yoshimura, E. Suzuki, K. Egawa, Y. Nishio, H. Maegawa, S. Morikawa, T. Inubushi, A. Hisatomi, K. Fujimoto, and A. Kashiwagi Low Blood Flow Estimates in Lower-Leg Arteries Predict Cardiovascular Events in Japanese Patients With Type 2 Diabetes With Normal Ankle-Brachial Indexes Diabetes Care, August 1, 2006; 29(8): 1884 - 1890. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A.-I. Tropeano, P. Boutouyrie, B. Pannier, R. Joannides, E. Balkestein, S. Katsahian, B. Laloux, C. Thuillez, H. Struijker-Boudier, and S. Laurent Brachial Pressure-Independent Reduction in Carotid Stiffness After Long-Term Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibition in Diabetic Hypertensives Hypertension, July 1, 2006; 48(1): 80 - 86. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. W. Braith and K. J. Stewart Resistance Exercise Training: Its Role in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Circulation, June 6, 2006; 113(22): 2642 - 2650. [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Ruiz, A. Gordillo-Moscoso, E. Padilla, S. Redondo, E. Rodriguez, F. Reguillo, A. M. Briones, C. van Breemen, E. Okon, and T. Tejerina Human vascular smooth muscle cells from diabetic patients are resistant to induced apoptosis due to high bcl-2 expression. Diabetes, May 1, 2006; 55(5): 1243 - 1251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. E. Safar, S. Czernichow, and J. Blacher Obesity, Arterial Stiffness, and Cardiovascular Risk J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., April 1, 2006; 17(4_suppl_2): S109 - S111. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. P.H. van Wijk, E. J.P. de Koning, M. C. Cabezas, J. Joven, J. op't Roodt, T. J. Rabelink, and A. M. Hoepelman Functional and Structural Markers of Atherosclerosis in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., March 21, 2006; 47(6): 1117 - 1123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Guan, C. Hudson, T. Wong, M. Kisilevsky, R. K. Nrusimhadevara, W. C. Lam, M. Mandelcorn, R. G. Devenyi, and J. G. Flanagan Retinal Hemodynamics in Early Diabetic Macular Edema Diabetes, March 1, 2006; 55(3): 813 - 818. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Tomiyama, H. Hashimoto, Y. Hirayama, M. Yambe, J. Yamada, Y. Koji, K. Shiina, Y. Yamamoto, and A. Yamashina Synergistic Acceleration of Arterial Stiffening in the Presence of Raised Blood Pressure and Raised Plasma Glucose Hypertension, February 1, 2006; 47(2): 180 - 188. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. E. Safar, F. Thomas, J. Blacher, R. Nzietchueng, J.-M. Bureau, B. Pannier, and A. Benetos Metabolic Syndrome and Age-Related Progression of Aortic Stiffness J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., January 3, 2006; 47(1): 72 - 75. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. F. Mitchell, J. A. Vita, M. G. Larson, H. Parise, M. J. Keyes, E. Warner, R. S. Vasan, D. Levy, and E. J. Benjamin Cross-Sectional Relations of Peripheral Microvascular Function, Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors, and Aortic Stiffness: The Framingham Heart Study Circulation, December 13, 2005; 112(24): 3722 - 3728. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. M. Dijk, A. Algra, Y. van der Graaf, D. E. Grobbee, M. L. Bots, and on behalf of the SMART study group Carotid stiffness and the risk of new vascular events in patients with manifest cardiovascular disease. The SMART study Eur. Heart J., June 2, 2005; 26(12): 1213 - 1220. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. R. Rubin, M. S. Maurer, D. J. McMahon, J. P. Bilezikian, and S. J. Silverberg Arterial Stiffness in Mild Primary Hyperparathyroidism J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2005; 90(6): 3326 - 3330. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. S. Reneman, J. M. Meinders, and A. P.G. Hoeks Non-invasive ultrasound in arterial wall dynamics in humans: what have we learned and what remains to be solved Eur. Heart J., May 2, 2005; 26(10): 960 - 966. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]