(Circulation. 2001;104:1911.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Heart Rate Recovery Immediately After Treadmill Exercise and Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction as Predictors of Mortality
The Case of Stress Echocardiography
From the Departments of Cardiology (J.W., M.T., J.D.T., M.S.L.), Cardiothoracic Surgery (E.H.B.), and Epidemiology and Biostatistics (E.H.B.), Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Correspondence to Michael S. Lauer, MD, FACC, Director of Clinical Research, Department of Cardiology, Desk F25, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44195. E-mail Lauerm{at}ccf.org
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Abstract |
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Background— An attenuated heart rate recovery after exercise has been shown to be predictive of mortality. In prior studies, recovery heart rates were measured while patients were exercising lightly, that is, during a cool-down period. It is not known whether heart rate recovery predicts mortality when measured in the absence of a cool-down period or after accounting for left ventricular systolic function.
Methods and Results— We followed 5438 consecutive patients without a history of heart failure or valvular disease referred for exercise echocardiography for 3 years. Heart rate recovery was defined as the difference in heart rate between peak exercise and 1 minute later; a value 
18 beats per minute was considered abnormal. Patients assumed the left lateral decubitus position after exercise. An abnormal heart rate recovery was present in 805 patients (15%); during follow-up, 190 died. An abnormal heart rate recovery was predictive of death (9% versus 2%, hazard ratio [HR] 3.9, 95% CI 2.9 to 5.3, P<0.0001) and predicted death whether or not left ventricular systolic dysfunction (ejection fraction 40%) was present. After adjusting for age, sex, exercise capacity, left ventricular systolic function, presence or absence of myocardial ischemia, and other confounders, an abnormal heart rate recovery remained predictive of death (adjusted HR 2.09, 95% CI 1.49 to 2.82, P<0.001).
Conclusions— Even in the absence of a cool-down period and even after accounting for left ventricular systolic function, heart rate recovery is a powerful and independent predictor of death.
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Introduction |
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An attenuated heart rate recovery after exercise, thought to be a marker of reduced parasympathetic activity,1,2 is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality among patients undergoing exercise electrocardiography and exercise SPECT.3,4 Previous studies of heart rate recovery have incorporated recovery heart rate measurements while patients were still walking slowly; this is known as a cool-down period.
Stress echocardiography mandates assumption of a supine position after exercise5,6; this increases venous return, leading to a bradycardic response. Furthermore, left ventricular systolic function is routinely assessed. The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether heart rate recovery predicts mortality among patients undergoing stress echocardiography. Because previous studies of heart rate recovery did not account for left ventricular systolic function, we sought to determine whether the predictive value of heart rate recovery persisted even after considering estimated left ventricular ejection fraction.
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Methods |
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Patient Population Sample
The study population consisted of consecutive patients referred for exercise stress echocardiography at the Cleveland Clinic between October 1990 and April 1999. Patients were excluded if they were <30 years of age, had a history of heart failure, valvular or congenital heart disease, had an implanted pacemaker or atrial fibrillation, or used digoxin. Patients were also excluded if a valid Social Security number was not available. The local Institutional Review Board approved the performance of systematic research based on the Foundation’s exercise and echocardiography databases.
Clinical Data
Before exercise testing, all patients underwent a structured interview and chart review, described in detail elsewhere.3–5,7 Data were recorded systematically, prospectively and online regarding demographics, testing indications, symptoms, risk factors, previous cardiac procedures and diagnoses, and medications.
Exercise Testing
After a supine rest ECG was obtained, symptom-limited exercise testing was conducted according to standard protocols (usually Bruce, modified Bruce, or Cornell).8 Treadmill exercise was used in 93% of patients. An ischemic ST-segment response was defined as horizontal or downsloping ST-segment depression of 
1 mm below baseline taken 80 ms after the J-point if there was < 1 mm of ST-segment depression at baseline. Chronotropic response was assessed on the basis of the proportion of heart rate reserve used as peak exercise, or (peak heart rate-resting heart rate)/(220-age-resting heart rate)9; a value of 0.80 was considered chronotropic incompetence. Functional capacity was measured in metabolic equivalents (or METs, where one MET is 3.5 mL/kg per min of oxygen consumption) on the basis of a previously published nomogram8; impaired physical fitness was defined as a fair or poor functional capacity for age and sex on the basis of a previously validated scheme. Impaired functional capacity was considered present when fair or poor for age and sex on the basis of a previously validated scheme from our laboratory.7 Specific values for impaired functional capacity were <10, <9, <8, <7, and <6 METs for ages 29, 30 to 39, 40 to 49, 50 to 59, and 60 years, respectively, for women, and <11, <10, <8.5, <8, and <7 METs for ages 29, 30 to 39, 40 to 49, 50 to 59, and 60 years, respectively, for men.7
Immediately after exercise, patients lay down in a supine position to allow for immediate poststress echocardiography. Heart rates were continuously monitored on the basis of the computerized R-R interval on the ECG.
Stress Echocardiography
Two-dimensional echocardiography was performed before and immediately after exercise using methods described previously.5,6 Images were obtained in the left lateral decubitus position in parasternal long- and short-axis and apical four- and two-chamber views using standard commercially available equipment. Patients who underwent bicycle stress testing also had pretest and posttest images obtained in the left lateral decubitus position. Interpretation was based on one attending physician reading. The readers had no knowledge of clinical, exercise electrocardiographic, and, if applicable, previous coronary arteriographic data and were not aware of the study hypothesis. Left ventricular ejection fraction was estimated visually, a technique commonly used in routine clinical practice that has been shown to have a reasonable degree of accuracy.10–13 Qualitative analysis was done in a standard 16-segment model of the left ventricle to identify ischemia and infarction.6,14 There were no missing values for left ventricular ejection fraction or for exercise hemodynamic or stress echocardiographic variables.
End Points
The primary end point was all-cause mortality, as determined by query of the Social Security Death Index,15,16 which had mortality data through May 1999 at the time the query was run. For 1990s mortality data, the Social Security Death Index has been shown to be highly specific.17 We have demonstrated that the sensitivity of this death index is 
97% among patients in our exercise laboratory.4 All-cause mortality was chosen as the end point of interest, because it is clinically relevant and not subject to inherent biases and inaccuracies of an end point like cardiac mortality.18 Median follow-up time was 3 years (range for survivors, 1 month to 9 years).
Statistical Analyses
Heart rate recovery was defined as the difference between heart rate at peak exercise and 1, 2, or 3 minutes later. We performed unadjusted Cox regression analyses relating the difference in heart rate at peak exercise with heart rate at these different points in recovery to all-cause mortality. The Wald 
2 values for 1-, 2-, and 3-minute heart rate recoveries were 87, 60, and 58, respectively. Therefore, we chose to use 1-minute heart rate recovery as the primary variable for analyses.
To determine an optimal cutoff value for 1-minute heart rate recovery, a series of Kaplan-Meier curves was constructed describing mortality rates above and below all heart rate recovery values between the 10th and 90th percentiles of the entire cohort.19 A cutoff value of 18 beats per minute was considered abnormal, because this value yielded the highest log-rank 2 statistic.
The association of heart rate recovery with all-cause mortality was formally tested by construction of Kaplan-Meier plots20 and Cox proportional hazards analyses.21 The proportional hazards assumption was confirmed by analysis of time-dependent covariates. Stratified analyses according to prespecified variables were used to explore potential interactions. For descriptive purposes, heart rate recovery values were sorted according to deciles, and 5-year Kaplan-Meier survival rates were plotted along with 95% Greenwood confidence limits.
Multivariable Cox analyses were performed in two stages.22 First, stepwise modeling was done on 500 bootstrap samples for purposes of variable selection23–25; those variables, including interaction terms, that entered at least 50% of models were considered viable. In the second stage, parameter estimates and standard errors were calculated on the basis of a separate set of 500 additional bootstrap resamplings.
Because left ventricular ejection fraction was visually estimated rather than quantitatively measured, a supplementary analysis was done to validate prognostically this approach. Patients were divided into the following 4 groups: (1) ejection fraction >50%; (2) ejection fraction 41% to 50%; (3) ejection fraction 31% to 40%; and (4) ejection fraction 30%. Kaplan Meier survival curves were drawn for each of these groups with the log-rank 2 test used to test for differences. A test for trend was used to determine if decreasing visually assessed ejection fraction was associated with higher mortality risk. All analyses were performed using the SAS statistical package, version 6.12 (SAS Institute, Inc).
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Results |
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Patient Characteristics
The study sample consisted of 5438 patients; of those, 15% (n=805) had an abnormal heart rate recovery (
18 beat/min). The median value of heart rate recovery was 30 bpm, with 25th and 75th percentile values of 22 and 37 bpm. Baseline characteristics according to heart rate recovery are shown in Table 1. Patients with an abnormal heart rate recovery were older and had a more adverse risk profile. They were more likely to take cardioactive medications. Exercise characteristics according to heart rate recovery are summarized in Table 2. Patients with an abnormal heart rate recovery were more likely to manifest impaired functional capacity, chronotropic incompetence, angina, and evidence of myocardial ischemia.
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Heart Rate Recovery and Mortality
During 16,446 person-years, there were 190 deaths. Figure 1 shows Kaplan-Meier 3-year death rates, along with 95% confidence intervals, according to deciles of heart rate recovery. Once heart rate recovery values fell below 21 to 23 beats per minute, the mortality rate increased substantially. When considered as a dichotomous variable, an abnormal heart rate recovery, defined as 18 bpm, was associated with an increased risk of death (9% versus 2%, hazard ratio [HR] 3.9, 95% CI 2.9 to 5.3, P<0.0001). Heart rate recovery was also predictive of death when considered as a continuous variable. Other predictors of death in univariable analyses are shown in Table 3.
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When we tested for interactions, we found a weak interaction whereby the increase in mortality risk associated with an abnormal heart rate recovery was lower among patients taking ß-blockers (taking ß-blockers, 6% versus 3%, HR 2.2, 95% CI 1.2 to 4.1, P=0.015; not taking ß-blockers, 11% versus 2%, HR 4.6, 95% CI 3.3 to 6.5, P<0.0001). Heart rate recovery and left ventricular systolic dysfunction provided additive predictive information (Figure 2).
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Multivariable Analyses
An abnormal heart rate recovery remained independently predictive of death (adjusted HR 2.1, 95% CI 1.5 to 2.8, P<0.0001) even after adjusting for age, sex, resting blood pressure, resting heart rate, present or recent smoking, diabetes, use of antihypertensive medications, history of known coronary disease and previous myocardial revascularization, use of aspirin, nitrates, lipid lowering drugs, ß-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, history of peripheral vascular disease and chronic lung disease, exercise capacity, exercise-induced angina, chronotropic response, left ventricular ejection fraction, change in left ventricular cavity size with stress, and echocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischemia (Table 4). No interaction terms were found to be significant.
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Validity of Visually Assessed Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction
A visually estimated ejection fraction of 41% to 50% was present in 466 patients (9%), whereas values of 31% to 40% and 30% were noted in 229 (4%) and 108 (2%) patients, respectively. Visually estimated ejection fraction was strongly correlated with risk of death, as shown in Figure 3.
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Sensitivity Analyses
To test the robustness of our findings, we examined the association of heart rate recovery with mortality in several sensitivity analyses. First, we took into account posttest revascularization, which occurred in 221 patients within the first 2 months of follow-up. Incorporating performance of early revascularization into the multivariable analysis had no impact on the overall results. We also limited analyses to those people who had at least 6 months of follow-up and again found no difference in the overall results.
Second, we excluded the 28 patients who had undergone coronary artery bypass graft within 90 days before the stress test; this also had no effects on the overall results. Third, as the population was quite obese, we examined whether a body mass index of 30 kg/m2 was predictive of mortality; after adjusting for age, sex, ejection fraction, heart rate recovery, and fitness, it was not (adjusted HR 0.9, 95% CI 0.7 to 1.2).
Fourth, we found no material difference in the distribution of heart rate recovery among patient exercised by bicycle or by treadmill. Follow-up for bicycle testing was very brief (only 1.3 years) given its limited and relatively recent use in our laboratory. There was no interaction between type of exercise used and heart rate recovery for prediction of death (P>0.5).
Fifth, when we excluded the patients taking ß-blockers, heart rate recovery was again strongly predictive of death (Table 4); after adjusting for potential confounders it remained independently predictive (adjusted HR 2.0, 95% CI 1.4 to 2.3, P=0.0002). Finally, we examined the 527 patients who had a resting heart rate of <60 beats per minute; 81 had an abnormal heart rate recovery. Only 18 of these patients died. Heart rate recovery tended to be associated with an increased mortality rate in this small subgroup (HR 2.4, 95% CI 0.8 to 6.6, P=0.10).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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Principal Findings
Among consecutive patients referred for exercise stress echocardiography for evaluation of known or suspected coronary disease, an abnormal heart rate recovery was a strong and independent predictor of mortality. This association was independent of and additive to left ventricular systolic dysfunction as well as impaired functional capacity and echocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischemia.
Previous Reports
We have previously reported on heart rate recovery as an independent predictor of death among patients undergoing exercise electrocardiography4 and stress nuclear testing3 as well as among healthy adults undergoing submaximal exercise testing.26 In our two studies that were based on patients,3,4 exercise was followed by a cool-down period. It has been suggested that routine incorporation of heart rate recovery into exercise test interpretation may be problematic because a cool-down period decreases diagnostic sensitivity.27
Because we specifically analyzed patients undergoing stress echocardiography, we were able to analyze systematically the prognostic power of heart rate recovery alongside left ventricular systolic function. Patients with an abnormal heart rate recovery were more likely to have left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Nonetheless, heart rate recovery was predictive of death independent of and in addition to left ventricular systolic dysfunction (Figure 3). These data should be interpreted with caution, however, given that we deliberately excluded patients with a clinical history of heart failure and that left ventricular function was measured by a semiquantitative visual estimation.
Mechanisms
Heart rate recovery is correlated with vagal reactivation, which is thought to be primarily important during the first minute after exercise.1,2 Because increased vagal tone is associated with reduced risks of death among people with and without cardiovascular disease,28,29 we had previously hypothesized that decreased heart rate recovery would be predictive of death risk. The present analysis demonstrates that this measure is not merely a reflection of decreased left ventricular systolic function or stress-induced ischemia. As we had noted before in a different population,3 heart rate recovery was correlated with impaired functional capacity; nonetheless, it was predictive of risk even after taking functional capacity into account.
Limitations
Data on frequency of physical activity or dosages of medications were not available. Because abnormal heart rate recovery was defined on the basis of maximization of the log-rank 2 statistic, the strength of association may well have been overstated. We tried to minimize this by using sequential bootstrapping in our multivariable analyses and also by analyzing heart rate recovery as a continuous variable. Left ventricular ejection fraction was measured on the basis of visual estimation. Although we did prognostically validate this measure and others have supported its use,10,12,13 it is possible that the strength of association between heart rate recovery and mortality may have been additionally attenuated had a more quantitative measure of left ventricular function been used.
Patients referred for stress echocardiography represent a select group in that their physicians feel that they are capable of exercise and also are likely to have reasonable echocardiographic windows. Indeed, we noted that comorbidities such as chronic lung disease, peripheral vascular disease, and the combination of diabetes and left ventricular dysfunction were quite uncommon in this population (Table 1). We did not record data on history of cancer.
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Conclusions |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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Despite these limitations, we found that an attenuated heart rate recovery was a powerful and independent predictor of risk of death, even when measured in the absence of a cool-down period and even when taking into account a systematic measure of left ventricular systolic dysfunction. These data provide additional support for routine incorporation of heart rate recovery into standard risk stratification assessments among patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. Future research is needed to determine how best to manage patients with abnormal heart rate recovery.
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Acknowledgments |
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Dr Lauer is supported by an Established Investigator Grant of the American Heart Association (0040244N) and a grant of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (RO1 HL66004-01).
Received June 18, 2001; revision received August 13, 2001; accepted August 13, 2001.
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References |
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K. G. Tarakji, R. Brunken, P. M. McCarthy, M. O. Al-Chekakie, A. Abdel-Latif, C. E. Pothier, E. H. Blackstone, and M. S. Lauer Myocardial Viability Testing and the Effect of Early Intervention in Patients With Advanced Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction Circulation, January 17, 2006; 113(2): 230 - 237. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. Y. Fang, J. Sharman, J. B. Prins, and T. H. Marwick Determinants of Exercise Capacity in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Care, July 1, 2005; 28(7): 1643 - 1648. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. L. Smith, M. Kukielka, and G. E. Billman Heart rate recovery after exercise: a predictor of ventricular fibrillation susceptibility after myocardial infarction Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, April 1, 2005; 288(4): H1763 - H1769. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Tahara, H. Takaki, A. Taguchi, K. Suyama, T. Kurita, W. Shimizu, S. Miyazaki, T. Kawada, and K. Sunagawa Pronounced HR variability after exercise in inferior ischemia: evidence that the cardioinhibitory vagal reflex is invoked by exercise-induced inferior ischemia Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, March 1, 2005; 288(3): H1179 - H1185. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. R. Ricardo, M. B. de Almeida, B. A. Franklin, and C. G. S. Araujo Initial and Final Exercise Heart Rate Transients: Influence of Gender, Aerobic Fitness, and Clinical Status Chest, January 1, 2005; 127(1): 318 - 327. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. P. Morise Heart Rate Recovery: Predictor of Risk Today and Target of Therapy Tomorrow? Circulation, November 2, 2004; 110(18): 2778 - 2780. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. S. Chen, E. H. Blackstone, C. E. Pothier, and M. S. Lauer Heart Rate Recovery and Impact of Myocardial Revascularization on Long-Term Mortality Circulation, November 2, 2004; 110(18): 2851 - 2857. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. K. Aktas, V. Ozduran, C. E. Pothier, R. Lang, and M. S. Lauer Global Risk Scores and Exercise Testing for Predicting All-Cause Mortality in a Preventive Medicine Program JAMA, September 22, 2004; 292(12): 1462 - 1468. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 N. Igosheva, O. Klimova, T. Anishchenko, and V. Glover Prenatal stress alters cardiovascular responses in adult rats J. Physiol., May 15, 2004; 557(1): 273 - 285. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. Deboeck, G. Niset, M. Lamotte, J-L. Vachiery, and R. Naeije Exercise testing in pulmonary arterial hypertension and in chronic heart failure Eur. Respir. J., May 1, 2004; 23(5): 747 - 751. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. W. Raymond Vagal Pas de Deux: Heart-Lung Interplay in Postexercise Heart Rate Recovery Chest, April 1, 2004; 125(4): 1186 - 1190. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. P. Yawn, K. A. Ammar, R. Thomas, and P. C. Wollan Test-Retest Reproducibility of Heart Rate Recovery After Treadmill Exercise Ann. Fam. Med, November 1, 2003; 1(4): 236 - 241. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. P. Vivekananthan, E. H. Blackstone, C. E. Pothier, and M. S. Lauer Heart rate recovery after exercise is apredictor of mortality, independent of the angiographic severity of coronary disease J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., September 3, 2003; 42(5): 831 - 838. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. B. Newman, C. L. Haggerty, S. B. Kritchevsky, M. C. Nevitt, and E. M. Simonsick Walking Performance and Cardiovascular Response: Associations With Age and Morbidity--The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., August 1, 2003; 58(8): M715 - 720. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A S Androne, K Hryniewicz, R Goldsmith, A Arwady, and S D Katz Acetylcholinesterase inhibition with pyridostigmine improves heart rate recovery after maximal exercise in patients with chronic heart failure Heart, August 1, 2003; 89(8): 854 - 858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. J. Cheng, M. S. Lauer, C. P. Earnest, T. S. Church, J. B. Kampert, L. W. Gibbons, and S. N. Blair Heart Rate Recovery Following Maximal Exercise Testing as a Predictor of Cardiovascular Disease and All-Cause Mortality in Men With Diabetes Diabetes Care, July 1, 2003; 26(7): 2052 - 2057. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. P. Frolkis, C. E. Pothier, E. H. Blackstone, and M. S. Lauer Frequent Ventricular Ectopy after Exercise as a Predictor of Death N. Engl. J. Med., February 27, 2003; 348(9): 781 - 790. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Tigaran, H. Molgaard, R. McClelland, M. Dam, and A.S. Jaffe Evidence of cardiac ischemia during seizures in drug refractory epilepsy patients Neurology, February 11, 2003; 60(3): 492 - 495. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Ohuchi, H. Ohashi, J. Park, J. Hayashi, A. Miyazaki, and S. Echigo Abnormal Postexercise Cardiovascular Recovery and Its Determinants in Patients After Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Reconstruction Circulation, November 26, 2002; 106(22): 2819 - 2826. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. S. Vasan, E. J. Benjamin, M. G. Larson, E. P. Leip, T. J. Wang, P. W. F. Wilson, and D. Levy Plasma Natriuretic Peptides for Community Screening for Left Ventricular Hypertrophy and Systolic Dysfunction: The Framingham Heart Study JAMA, September 11, 2002; 288(10): 1252 - 1259. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. S. Lauer The "exercise" part of exercise echocardiography J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., April 17, 2002; 39(8): 1353 - 1355. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 More Data on the Prognostic Value of Impaired Heart-Rate Recovery After Exercise Journal Watch Cardiology, January 4, 2002; 2002(104): 7 - 7. [Full Text]
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