doi: 10.1161/hc2601.091703
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(Circulation. 2001;104:25.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Impact of Viral and Bacterial Infectious Burden on Long-Term Prognosis in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease
From the Department of Medicine II (H.J.R., S.B., C.B., J.M.), the Department of Medical Statistics and Documentation (G.R.), and the Department of Clinical Chemistry (G.H., W.P.), Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany, and EUROIMMUN (W.S.), Lübeck, Germany.
Correspondence to Hans-Jürgen Rupprecht, MD, University Clinic Mainz, Department of Medicine II, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55101 Mainz, Germany. E-mail rupprecht{at}2-med.klinik.uni-mainz.de
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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Background—The number of infectious pathogens to which an individual has been exposed (infectious burden) may correlate with coronary artery disease (CAD). In a prospective study, we evaluated the effect of 8 pathogens and the aggregate pathogen burden on the risk for future fatal cardiac events among patients with angiographically documented CAD.
Methods and Results—In 1018 patients, IgG or IgA antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Haemophilus influenzae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Helicobacter pylori were determined. Moreover, highly sensitive C-reactive protein was measured. Follow-up information on cardiovascular events was obtained (mean 3.1 years, maximum 4.3 years). Seropositivities to Epstein-Barr virus (P=0.001), H pylori (P=0.002), and herpes simplex virus type 2 (P=0.045) were independently associated with the future risk of cardiovascular death. An increasing number for pathogen burden was significantly predictive of the long-term prognosis (P<0.0001). Infectious burden divided into 0 to 3, 4 or 5, and 6 to 8 seropositivities was associated with an increasing mortality of 3.7%, 7.2%, and 12.6%, respectively. Patients seropositive to >5 pathogens compared with those seropositive to <4 pathogens had a 5.1 (1.4 to 18.3) higher risk of future cardiac death. This result was mainly driven by the pathogen burden of seropositivities to Herpesviridae (P<0.0001). The prognostic impact of total or viral pathogen burden was independent of the C-reactive protein level.
Conclusions—These results support the hypothesis that the number of infectious pathogens to which an individual has been exposed independently contributes to the long-term prognosis in patients with documented CAD.
Key Words: infection • inflammation • prognosis • atherosclerosis • coronary disease
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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Several classic risk factors for the development of coronary artery disease (CAD) have been identified. However, these factors may explain only the high prevalence of CAD in part.1
Injury to the vessel wall and the associated inflammatory response are now generally recognized as essential components of atherogenesis.2 However, the stimuli that initiate and sustain the inflammatory process have not been fully identified. A candidate trigger of both inflammatory3 and autoimmune4 responses is infection, which might be a source of chronic local or systemic inflammation.
Several retrospective and cross-sectional studies have shown an association between previous infections with Chlamydia pneumoniae, herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), Helicobacter pylori, hepatitis A, or respiratory tract infection and the presence of CAD or the risk for acute coronary events, but other studies have not shown such an association.5 6 7 8
The results of prospective studies regarding an association between seropositivity to infectious agents and future cardiac events have also been disparate.9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Recently, Epstein et al3 formally introduced the concept of infectious burden and demonstrated that the number of infectious pathogens to which an individual has been exposed is related to the presence of CAD. Zhu and colleagues16 17 could show an association between infectious burden and the risk of future cardiac events.
Viral infections might differ from bacterial infections regarding their latent state, and Herpesviridae especially exert direct proatherogenic effects on injured vessel walls.3 In the present study, we prospectively evaluated the impact of the aggregate number of infectious pathogens on long-term prognosis in patients with CAD. Furthermore, the relative contribution of viral and bacterial infections on the long-term outcome and the interaction with an inflammatory process was studied.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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Study Population
Between November 1996 and July 1998, 1018 consecutive patients who had been admitted to the Department of Medicine II of the University Clinic Mainz for diagnostic angiography because of symptoms of suspected CAD and in whom a diameter stenosis of at least 30% was diagnosed in a major coronary artery were included in the present study. Patients with no evidence of CAD as defined above and with evidence of concomitant diseases, in particular, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, known malignant diseases, and febrile conditions, had been excluded. Diabetes mellitus was diagnosed in patients who had previously undergone dietary treatment or received additional oral antidiabetic or insulin medication or who had a current fasting blood sugar level >125 mg/dL; hypertension was diagnosed in patients who had received antihypertensive treatment or had been diagnosed as hypertensive (blood pressure >160/90 mm Hg); and hyperlipoproteinemia was diagnosed in patients who had been given lipid-lowering medication or had a history of cholesterol levels >240 mg/dL. Smoking was classified as current smoking, past smoking (stopped between >4 weeks and <40 years ago), or never smoking (never smoked or stopped smoking
40 years
ago). Acute coronary syndrome was defined as acute
myocardial infarction or unstable angina (Braunwald class B or
C). A total of 1010 (99.2%) of the 1018 patients were followed up for a mean of 3.1 (maximum 4.3) years. Patients either presented at our clinic (87.2%) or were interviewed by telephone by trained medical staff. Follow-up information was obtained about death from cardiovascular causes (n=78), death from causes not related to heart disease (n=22), and nonfatal myocardial infarction (n=61). Information about the cause of death or clinical events was obtained from hospital or general practitioner charts.
Study participants had German nationality. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Mainz. Participation was voluntary, and each study subject gave written informed consent.
Infectious Serology and Laboratory
Methods
Blood was drawn from all study subjects under
standardized conditions after an overnight fasting period before
coronary angiography was performed. Samples were stored at
-80°C until analysis.
The serum of each study subject was tested for specific IgG class antibodies against CMV, HSV-1, HSV-2, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), C pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and H pylori as well as IgA class antibodies against C pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, H pylori, and EBV by using quantitative in vitro ELISA or indirect immunofluorescence (C pneumoniae and H influenzae) (EUROIMMUN). A value of >20 relative units per mL in the IgG ELISA and a ratio of >1 in the IgA ELISA were considered positive according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Concerning indirect immunofluorescence, the starting dilution was 1:100, and specific fluorescence patterns at or above these dilutions were considered positive. C-reactive protein (CRP) was determined by a highly sensitive, latex particle–enhanced immunoassay (detection range 0 to 20 mg/L, Roche Diagnostics). Lipid serum levels were measured immediately by use of routine methods.
Statistical Considerations
Highest versus lowest pathogen burden groups were
compared by 
2 test (categorical
variables) or Student t
test (continuous variables). For skewed distribution (CRP),
logarithmically transformed variables were tested. Survival was
assessed by Cox regression and the Kaplan-Meier method. For adjusted
survival analysis, Cox regression was applied; variables
included all univariate predictive variables and those
variables possibly confounding or being confounded by infectious
serology tested, such as smoking and HDL cholesterol.
Adjusted estimates of risks for each unit increase in pathogen burden
are presented as hazard risk ratios (HRRs) and 95% CIs. First,
pathogen burden was entered as a single ordinal covariate in the Cox
regression models; further groups of seropositivities were stratified
into low, middle, and high pathogen burden. Additionally,
analyses were performed separately for Herpesviridae and
bacterial infections. All statistical tests used are reported with
2-tailed probability values;
P<0.05 was considered to be
significant. All computations were carried out by using SPSS, version
10.0.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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Baseline Characteristics
Table 1
demonstrates patient characteristics
according to low or high pathogen load. The mean age of the entire
study population was 62±10 years; 73.5% were male
patients.
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Univariate Predictors of Mortality
From Cardiovascular Causes
As shown in
Table 2, CRP was strongly associated with mortality from
cardiovascular causes (HR 1.3 for logarithmically
transformed continuous variables,
P=0.001). Further
univariate predictors were age, history of diabetes, left
ventricular ejection fraction, and statin intake at
enrollment. Both angiographic features, ie, the number of diseased
vessels and the number of stenoses >30%, were predictors of
future fatal cardiovascular events. Interestingly,
history of hyperlipidemia paradoxically predicted lower
risk after CAD diagnosis. This may be explained by a higher percentage
of statin prescription in this patient cohort. Therefore, we preferred
to include the variable statin intake instead of history of
hyperlipidemia into multivariate
analyses.
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Analyses of Seropositivities and Future
Death From Cardiac Causes
Table 3 demonstrates the associations of baseline pathogen
IgG and IgA antibodies with future fatal cardiovascular
events. Of all evaluated pathogens, only IgG seropositivity to HSV-2
and IgA seropositivity to EBV as well as H
pylori revealed an independent significant association with
future cardiovascular death.
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Pathogen Burden and Future Cardiac
Mortality
For analysis of the association between future
death from cardiovascular causes and the aggregate
number of anti-pathogen antibodies, we used IgG seropositivities to
HSV-1 and -2, CMV, and H
influenzae, as well as IgA seropositivities to
H pylori,
M pneumoniae,
C pneumoniae, and EBV. An
increasing pathogen burden was significantly predictive of the
long-term prognosis in a dose-response manner
(P<0.0001, fully adjusted)
(Figure 1). As demonstrated in
Table 4, relative hazard risk ratios increased with
increasing numbers of seropositivities. Because of the limited numbers
of subjects with very low and very high pathogen burden, we stratified
patients into groups with 0 to 3, 4 or 5, and 6 to 8 numbers of
seropositivities. The mortality in these groups amounted to 3.7%,
7.2%, and 12.6%, respectively. In the fully adjusted model, patients
seropositive to >5 pathogens revealed a 5.1 (1.4 to 18.3) increase in
risk for future fatal events compared with the reference group of
patients with <4 seropositivities
(P for trend=0.002, fully
adjusted).
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Further analyses were performed separating
seropositivities into Herpesviridae and bacterial infections
(Table 4
). The overall dose-response relationship between
pathogen burden and future fatal cardiovascular events
was mainly driven by seropositivities to Herpesviridae
(P<0.0001). The hazard risk
ratio for individuals with 3 and 4 seropositivities compared with
patients with <2 seropositivities was 6.4 (95% CI 2.1 to 19.6). The
corresponding Kaplan-Meier survival estimates to these analyses
are presented in
Figure 2.
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Pathogen Burden and Combined End Point of
Myocardial Infarction and Death From Cardiovascular
Causes
The relationship between the combined end point of
myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular
causes and total pathogen burden was somewhat attenuated in the fully
adjusted model (1.9-fold increase in risk for >5 compared with <4
pathogens, 95% CI 1.4 to 18.3). However, the relationship between
aggregate number of Herpesviridae and combined end point remained
highly significant (2.3-fold increase in risk for >2 compared with <2
pathogens, 95% CI 1.2 to 4.4;
P=0.008).
Association Between CRP Level, Pathogen Burden,
and Future Cardiac Death
To evaluate a possible interaction between pathogen
burden, CRP, and future death from cardiovascular
causes, we repeated analyses with respect to high (>0.5 mg/dL)
or low (
0.5 mg/dL) CRP levels.
Figure 3a and 3b demonstrates the association of total
pathogen burden with future fatal cardiovascular
events, which was independently significant in both subgroups
irrespective of the CRP level. Then the association is shown between
the aggregate number of seropositivities to bacterial infections
(Figure 3c and 3d) or Herpesviridae
(Figure 3e and 3f) among both CRP groups. The strongest
association between infectious burden and future fatal
cardiovascular events was observed for the aggregate
number of Herpesviridae among patients with low CRP levels
(P<0.0001, fully adjusted; HR
5.6, 95% CI 2.3 to 13.9). These data provide evidence that
Herpesviridae predict risk independent of CRP, whereas bacterial
infections are predictive in patients with elevated CRP levels
only.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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There is consistent evidence that inflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Inflammatory cell infiltration is observed in atherosclerotic plaques at virtually all stages, and many studies have linked serum markers of inflammation, such as the level of CRP to future cardiac events in healthy individuals as well as in patients with stable or unstable angina.18 19
The evidence of infectious pathogens contributing to the atherosclerotic process includes seroepidemiological data, direct identification of Herpesviridae and C pneumoniae in the atherosclerotic plaque, experimental models demonstrating an acceleration of atherosclerosis by Herpesviridae or C pneumoniae, and induction of proatherogenic properties by infectious agents.3
It is hypothesized that infectious agents exert their effects by inducing a local or systemic inflammatory response and/or by infection-induced autoimmune response involving molecular mimicry.
It has been shown that the aggregate number of pathogens to which an individual had been exposed might be involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. This concept has been referred to as infectious burden and was demonstrated in a cross-sectional as well as prospective study recently.3 16 17 Increasing numbers of infectious pathogens were associated with future death from overall causes and nonfatal myocardial infarction. This association was described independent of CRP levels.
In the present study, we selected 8 pathogens because of the following 2 main characteristics: They are obligate intracellular pathogens, except for H influenzae and M pneumoniae, and they all develop persistent antibodies targeted to the pathogen. Furthermore, 6 pathogens produce a lifelong latent (Herpesviridae) or persistent infection, whereas H influenzae and M pneumoniae are not known to provoke a persistent infection although they establish a lifelong persistence of antibodies. In all pathogens, we determined anti-IgG antibodies; in some pathogens, additional IgA antibodies were measured because of the nearly 100% prevalence of IgG (EBV) and because of reports suggesting that IgA antibodies might reflect more recent and/or repeated infectious episodes (C pneumoniae, H pylori, and M pneumoniae).20
The results of the present study confirm and extend previous findings. Three (H pylori, HSV-2, and EBV) of 8 infectious pathogens were identified as being independently predictive of future death from cardiovascular causes. Interestingly, neither IgG nor IgA antibodies to C pneumoniae were associated with future cardiovascular events. It cannot be ruled out that measurement of antibodies to C pneumoniae provides the wrong tool to determine the association between this pathogen and cardiovascular events. However, our data do not support the implicit assumption of several prospective trials testing the effect of macrolide antibiotics on future cardiac event rates in patients with atherosclerosis.21 On the other hand, our results show for the first time that prior infection to EBV may influence the course of atherosclerosis. EBV is an obligate intracellular pathogen with lifelong persistence in B cells. If infections do play a role in atherogenesis and if, at least in part, infection-induced autoimmune responses contribute to this process, EBV could be a candidate trigger. Virus-induced antigens are part of B-cell membranes and can so far stimulate T-cell activity. On the other hand, EBV-containing T cells have been recently demonstrated in atherosclerotic abdominal aneurysms.22 Regardless of the mechanism, EBV shows the strongest association of all single pathogens with future events. This may suggest that a variety of pathogens sharing these characteristics may play a role in atherogenesis.
Most important, increasing numbers of infectious serologies were identified as independent risk factors for future cardiac death. Furthermore, stratified analyses in patients with low and high CRP levels demonstrated that the association of pathogen burden with future cardiovascular death remained independently significant in both groups.
We further performed stratified analyses of 2 infectious groups, Herpesviridae and bacterial infections. The aggregate number of Herpesviridae (herpes burden) was highly significantly predictive of future cardiovascular events irrespective of the CRP level. In contrast, the aggregate number of bacterial infections only showed an association with fatal events in patients with an elevated CRP level. These results may provide further evidence that at least the obligate intracellular Herpesviridae having a latent state may contribute to the atherogenic process independent of an inflammatory response.
On the other hand, several prospective studies have revealed contradictory results.9 12 14 23 These disparate results may have been reached for several reasons: In contrast to the present study, each of these studies was restricted to a highly homogeneous, apparently healthy population. Despite the advantage of such highly selected populations (eg, elimination of various confounders), these populations may not necessarily represent other populations (eg, those with proven atherosclerotic disease). Furthermore, most of these studies determined only IgG antibodies, and last, evaluation of Herpesviridae was mostly restricted to anti-CMV IgG alone.
Although prospective in design, the present study shares the limitations of nonrandomized observational studies, ie, unsuspected selection biases and possible confounding. However, the association of infectious burden and mortality remained stable after adjustment for multiple potentially confounding variables. Nonetheless, the present study cannot unequivocally prove a causal relationship between infectious agents and the atherosclerotic process.
In conclusion, our data provide strong evidence that infections play a role in atherogenesis, at least as covariates to preexisting CAD risk factors. An increasing pathogen load (infectious burden) was independently related to future death from cardiovascular causes in patients with CAD. Because there is growing evidence that a variety of pathogens are participating in the development and/or acceleration of at least preexisting atherosclerosis (even by secondary immune or autoimmune mechanisms), it seems questionable whether specific antibiotic therapy to 1 or 2 specific pathogens will be useful in determining the infectious hypothesis and in improving patient outcome.
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Appendix 1 |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionAppendix 1References |
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The AtheroGene Group consisted of the following members:
Hans-Jürgen Rupprecht, Stefan Blankenberg, Christoph Bickel, Christine Espinola-Klein, Jürgen Meyer (II Medical Clinic, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany); Laurence Tiret, Odette Poirier, Viviane Nicaud, Jean-Louis Georges, Francois Cambien (INSERM U525, Paris, France); and Gerd Hafner and Wilfried Prellwitz (Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany).
AtheroGene recuitment centers were located at II Medical Clinic, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, and at Bundeswehrzentralkrankenhaus Koblenz, Germany.
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Footnotes |
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Dr Schlumberger is currently employed by EUROIMMUN, the company providing the infectious test kits used in this study.
1 The Appendix lists the AtheroGene Investigators. 
Received February 2, 2001; revision received April 9, 2001; accepted April 11, 2001.
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P. J. Pussinen, K. Nyyssonen, G. Alfthan, R. Salonen, J. A. Laukkanen, and J. T. Salonen Serum Antibody Levels to Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans Predict the Risk for Coronary Heart Disease Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, April 1, 2005; 25(4): 833 - 838. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R. Schnabel, H. J. Rupprecht, K. J. Lackner, E. Lubos, C. Bickel, J. Meyer, T. Munzel, F. Cambien, L. Tiret, S. Blankenberg, et al. Analysis of N-terminal-pro-brain natriuretic peptide and C-reactive protein for risk stratification in stable and unstable coronary artery disease: results from the AtheroGene study Eur. Heart J., February 1, 2005; 26(3): 241 - 249. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Ngeh and C. Goodbourn Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Legionella pneumophila in Elderly Patients With Stroke (C-PEPS, M-PEPS, L-PEPS): A Case-Control Study on the Infectious Burden of Atypical Respiratory Pathogens in Elderly Patients With Acute Cerebrovascular Disease Stroke, February 1, 2005; 36(2): 259 - 265. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J Sheehan, P M Kearney, S O Sullivan, C Mongan, E Kelly, and I J Perry Acute coronary syndrome and chronic infection in the Cork coronary care case-control study Heart, January 1, 2005; 91(1): 19 - 22. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. J. DeGraba Immunogenetic Susceptibility of Atherosclerotic Stroke: Implications on Current and Future Treatment of Vascular Inflammation Stroke, November 1, 2004; 35(11_suppl_1): 2712 - 2719. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. Ninio, D. Tregouet, J.-L. Carrier, D. Stengel, C. Bickel, C. Perret, H. J. Rupprecht, F. Cambien, S. Blankenberg, and L. Tiret Platelet-activating factor-acetylhydrolase and PAF-receptor gene haplotypes in relation to future cardiovascular event in patients with coronary artery disease Hum. Mol. Genet., July 1, 2004; 13(13): 1341 - 1351. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. G. Hogan and M. F. O'Brien Improving the allograft valve: does the immune response matter? J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., November 1, 2003; 126(5): 1251 - 1253. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Blankenberg, H. J. Rupprecht, C. Bickel, M. Torzewski, G. Hafner, L. Tiret, M. Smieja, F. Cambien, J. Meyer, K. J. Lackner, et al. Glutathione Peroxidase 1 Activity and Cardiovascular Events in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease N. Engl. J. Med., October 23, 2003; 349(17): 1605 - 1613. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 O. J de Boer, A. E Becker, and A. C van der Wal T lymphocytes in atherogenesis--functional aspects and antigenic repertoire Cardiovasc Res, October 15, 2003; 60(1): 78 - 86. [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. J. F. Baskett, M. A. Nanton, A. E. Warren, and D. B. Ross Human leukocyte antigen-DR and ABO mismatch are associated with accelerated homograft valve failure in children: implications for therapeutic interventions J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., July 1, 2003; 126(1): 232 - 238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Benagiano, A. Azzurri, A. Ciervo, A. Amedei, C. Tamburini, M. Ferrari, J. L. Telford, C. T. Baldari, S. Romagnani, A. Cassone, et al. T helper type 1 lymphocytes drive inflammation in human atherosclerotic lesions PNAS, May 27, 2003; 100(11): 6658 - 6663. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Blankenberg, H. J. Rupprecht, O. Poirier, C. Bickel, M. Smieja, G. Hafner, J. Meyer, F. Cambien, L. Tiret, and for the AtheroGene Investigators Plasma Concentrations and Genetic Variation of Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 and Prognosis of Patients With Cardiovascular Disease Circulation, April 1, 2003; 107(12): 1579 - 1585. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. B. Muhlestein and J. L. Anderson Infectious Serology and Atherosclerosis: How Burdensome Is the Risk? Circulation, January 21, 2003; 107(2): 220 - 222. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Smieja, J. Gnarpe, E. Lonn, H. Gnarpe, G. Olsson, Q. Yi, V. Dzavik, M. McQueen, S. Yusuf, and for the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE Multiple Infections and Subsequent Cardiovascular Events in the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Circulation, January 21, 2003; 107(2): 251 - 257. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Espinola-Klein, H.-J. Rupprecht, S. Blankenberg, C. Bickel, H. Kopp, A. Victor, G. Hafner, W. Prellwitz, W. Schlumberger, and J. Meyer Impact of Infectious Burden on Progression of Carotid Atherosclerosis Stroke, November 1, 2002; 33(11): 2581 - 2586. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Gabrielli, L. Santarelli, A. Gasbarrini, C. Espinola-Klein, H. J. Rupprecht, S. Blankenberg, C. Bickel, H. Kopp, J. Meyer, G. Rippin, et al. Role for Chronic Infections in Atherosclerosis? * Response Circulation, August 13, 2002; 106 (7): e32 - e32. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Prasad, J. Zhu, J. P.J. Halcox, M. A. Waclawiw, S. E. Epstein, and A. A. Quyyumi Predisposition to Atherosclerosis by Infections: Role of Endothelial Dysfunction Circulation, July 9, 2002; 106(2): 184 - 190. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Blankenberg, L. Tiret, C. Bickel, D. Peetz, F. Cambien, J. Meyer, H. J. Rupprecht, and for the AtheroGene Investigators Interleukin-18 Is a Strong Predictor of Cardiovascular Death in Stable and Unstable Angina Circulation, July 2, 2002; 106(1): 24 - 30. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. W. Kerrigan, I. Douglas, A. Wray, J. Heath, M. F. Byrne, D. Fitzgerald, and D. Cox A role for glycoprotein Ib in Streptococcus sanguis-induced platelet aggregation Blood, June 28, 2002; 100(2): 509 - 516. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Auer, R. Berent, T. Weber, and B. Eber Influenza Virus Infection, Infectious Burden, and Atherosclerosis Stroke, June 1, 2002; 33(6): 1454 - 1455. [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. W. Auer, R. Berent, T. Weber, B. Eber, S. Bhakdi, T. Attila Sagban, H.-A. Lehr, C. Ihling, U. Zahringer, K.-D. Hungerer, et al. Immunopathogenesis of Atherosclerosis * Response Circulation, March 12, 2002; 105 (10): e64 - e64. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Auer, R. Berent, T. Weber, and B. Eber Cytokine gene polymorphisms and development of CAD associated with CP infection J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., March 6, 2002; 39(5): 918 - 919. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. Stollberger and J. Finsterer Role of Infectious and Immune Factors in Coronary and Cerebrovascular Arteriosclerosis Clin. Vaccine Immunol., March 1, 2002; 9(2): 207 - 215. [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. E. Epstein The Multiple Mechanisms by Which Infection May Contribute to Atherosclerosis Development and Course Circ. Res., January 11, 2002; 90(1): 2 - 4. [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Espinola-Klein, H. J. Rupprecht, S. Blankenberg, C. Bickel, H. Kopp, G. Rippin, A. Victor, G. Hafner, W. Schlumberger, and J. Meyer Impact of Infectious Burden on Extent and Long-Term Prognosis of Atherosclerosis Circulation, January 1, 2002; 105(1): 15 - 21. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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