(Circulation. 2001;103:941.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Anticardiolipin Antibodies From Patients With the Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome Recognize Epitopes in Both ß2-Glycoprotein 1 and Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein
From the Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, and the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah, Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City (D.W.B.).
Correspondence to Joseph L. Witztum, MD, or Sohvi Hörkkö, MD, PhD, Dept of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0682. E-mail jwitztum@ucsd.edu or shorkko{at}ucsd.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—We recently suggested that many anticardiolipin antibodies bind only to oxidized cardiolipin (OxCL) and/or to OxCL–ß2-glycoprotein 1 (ß2GP1) adducts but not to a "reduced" cardiolipin that is unable to undergo oxidation. To test this hypothesis, we investigated 24 sera, 4 protein A–purified IgG fractions, and 3 human monoclonal antibodies that were all isolated from patients with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS); testing was also performed in 7 controls. Two monoclonal antibodies (IS3 and IS4) were selected for binding to CL and one was selected for binding to ß2GP1 (LJB8).
Methods and Results—By chemiluminescent immunoassay, all APS sera samples bound only to OxCL and not to reduced CL, and the binding was inhibited >95% by OxCL but not reduced CL. All purified IgG fractions bound to ß2GP1 but only when the ß2GP1 was plated on microtiter wells coated with OxCL. All 3 monoclonal antibodies bound only to OxCL. On Western blots, IS4 and LJB8 bound to ß2GP1 as well as to delipidated apoB of oxidized LDL but not to native apoB. IS3 also bound to oxidized apoB on Western blot. Covalent modification of ß2GP1 with oxidation products of CL made it more antigenic for APS serum samples, for purified IgG fractions, and for the monoclonal antibodies.
Conclusions—These data support the hypothesis that oxidation of CL is needed to generate epitopes for many anticardiolipin antibodies and that some of these epitopes are covalent adducts of OxCL with ß2GP1 or apoB.
Key Words: antibodies, antiphospholipid • lipoproteins • autoimmunity
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) are heterogeneous autoantibodies detected in vitro by solid-phase immunoassays as antibodies binding to phospholipids such as cardiolipin (CL) or to complexes of phospholipid and ß2-glycoprotein 1 (ß2GP1).1 2 3 4 5 6 Patients with high levels of aPL are prone to fetal loss, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, and thrombotic events in either the venous or arterial circulation.4 5 6 7 Elevated levels of aPL in combination with one or more clinical features has been termed the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS).
The exact nature of the epitope(s) for anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL) has been controversial.4 5 6 We recently demonstrated that CL is rapidly oxidized when plated on microtiter wells and exposed to air—as is done in conventional solid-phase aCL immunoassays.8 We also showed that a few selected reference sera and affinity-purified aCL-IgG from APS patients progressively bound to CL as it was oxidized but not to a "reduced" CL (CLred) analogue that was unable to undergo lipid peroxidation (all 4 unsaturated fatty acids in CLred are hydrogenated to saturated fatty acids). We proposed that aCL bind to epitopes generated when CL undergoes oxidation.8 9
ß2GP1 is a phospholipid-binding apolipoprotein (also called apolipoprotein H) that seems to be necessary for the binding of some aCL.2 3 It has been proposed that, as a result of noncovalent protein-lipid interactions, novel, conformational epitopes are created on the plated CL, on ß2GP1, or on an admixture of these two, or that ß2GP1 alone is the target antigen.3 4 5 10 11 We demonstrated that some aPL bind to proteins like ß2GP1 only as a consequence of covalent adduct formation between oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) and the protein.9 The formation of neoepitopes between OxPL and associated proteins would be analogous to LDL oxidation, which generates immunogenic neoepitopes.8 12 13 Autoantibodies to OxLDL are present in the sera of animals and humans and are increased in those with increased atherosclerosis.14 15 Indeed, aCL in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus cross-react with oxidized LDL (OxLDL).16
In the present article, we demonstrate that oxidized CL (OxCL) and covalent adducts of OxCL with ß2GP1 are epitopes for many aCL. In addition, we show that "native" ß2GP1 and OxLDL share common epitopes recognized by monoclonal antibodies cloned from APS patients.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Materials
CL (diphosphatidylglycerol, bovine heart) containing 4 unsaturated fatty acids and hydrogenated CL (CLred) containing 4 saturated fatty acids were obtained from Avanti Polar Lipids. Fatty acid analysis confirmed that linoleic acid accounted for >92% of the fatty acids of CL, whereas all fatty acids in CLred were saturated (18:0).8 CL was oxidized by air exposure to generate various decomposition products, as previously descibed.8 Human ß2GP1 was purified as previously described.17
Human Subjects
Serum samples from 21 women and 1 man with APS and
from 7 healthy controls were collected at the Department of Obstetrics
and Gynecology of the University of Utah Hospital. Two patients had
donated a serum sample at 2 different times, 7 and 8 years apart, for a
total of 24 serum samples from the APS patients. APS patients had 
1
of the following clinical features: (1) a history of either 1 fetal
deaths or 3 consecutive pregnancy losses, (2) venous or arterial
thrombosis, or (3) autoimmune thrombocytopenia. Six patients had
systemic lupus erythematosus. All patients had aCL IgG, as measured by
a standardized assay18 in Dr
Branch’s laboratory (19 samples were >100 IgG phospholipid-binding
units and 6 samples were 30, 40, 44, 47, 62, and 75 IgG
phospholipid-binding units, respectively).
Chemiluminescent Immunoassay for Antibody
Binding
CL or CLred in 100% ethanol was added at 25 µg/mL
into white, round-bottomed High Binding Microfluor (Dynex)
microtitration plates and exposed to air for the indicated time at room
temperature to induce oxidation. Absolute ethanol was added to blank
wells. The wells were washed with PBS buffer containing 0.27 mmol/L
EDTA and blocked with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1% bovine serum albumin
(BSA), or 0.25% gelatin in indicated experiments. The primary
antibodies were incubated for 1 hour, and the amount of antibody bound
was measured with alkaline phosphatase-labeled goat anti-human IgG
(Sigma) using LumiPhos 530 (Lumigen) as the substrate. Luminescence was
measured in relative light units (RLU) with a Dynex Luminometer (Dynex
Technologies).8 9
Each point in each of the figures is the mean of triplicate
determinations.
Preparation of
OxCL-ß2GP1
CL was dried and exposed to air for 3 hours. Purified
human ß2GP1 (in PBS and 20 µmol/L EDTA) and
NaCNBH3 (10 mmol/L) were added and incubated at
37°C for 6 hours. After incubation, 80 mmol/L octylglucoside was
added and dialyzed against PBS to remove the unbound
CL.
Protein A Purification of IgG
Whole IgG fractions were purified using ImmunoPure
Plus Immobilized Protein A IgG Purification Kit (Pierce). The absence
of ß2GP1 in the IgG fractions was verified by
a capture assay. Samples were incubated in wells coated with polyclonal
goat anti-human ß2GP1 antibody (10 µg/mL;
Enzyme Research Laboratories) and by detecting the amount of
ß2GP1 captured with the biotinylated
anti-human ß2GP1 antibody and alkaline
phosphatase–labeled avidin (Pierce).
Generation of Monoclonal IgG aCL
Antibodies
Human monoclonal IgG antibodies IS3 and IS4 were
generated from a patient with primary APS, as recently
described,17 19
by selecting for their ability to bind to CL. Antibody LJB8 (not
previously described) was cloned from another APS patient in a similar
manner, but it was selected for binding to
ß2GP1. The absence of bovine
ß2GP1 in the monoclonal antibody preparations
was verified by SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis and silver
staining.
Western Blot
Proteins were electrophoresed on SDS 4% to 12%
trisglycine polyacrylamide gels and electrotransferred to
nitrocellulose membranes. Transfer was confirmed with 0.1% Ponceau S
(Sigma) staining, and the membranes were blocked with Super Block
(Pierce) or 0.25% gelatin and immunostained with either the human
monoclonal antibodies or goat anti-human ß2GP1
antibody. Antibody binding was detected by appropriate alkaline
phosphatase–labeled secondary antibodies and visualized with Alkaline
Phosphatase Conjugate Substrate Kit
(Bio-Rad).
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Antibody Binding to OxCL and CLred
Figure 1
demonstrates that IgG binding was substantially
higher to OxCL than to CLred for each of the APS serum samples. Control
samples had low binding to both antigens. When the assay was repeated
in the absence of 10% bovine serum, virtually identical results were
observed (data not shown).
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Because the aCL binding has been suggested to depend
exclusively on the presence of ß2GP1, we
tested whether ß2GP1 binds to both OxCL and
CLred to the same extent.
Figure 2A shows an example in which there is increased IgG
binding from one APS serum sample to the OxCL but no binding to CLred.
In the same experiment, we used an anti-ß2GP1
antibody to demonstrate that substantial amounts of human
ß2GP1 (from the added serum) bound to both
OxCL and CLred when measured in parallel wells under identical
conditions
(Figure 2A). This suggests that the binding of aCL to
phospholipids does not depend exclusively on the presence of
ß2GP1.
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) plated on microtiter wells. Amount of ß2GP1 bound to OxCL (
) and CLred (
) in parallel wells using goat anti-human ß2GP1 antibody is also shown. B, Competition immunoassay of IgG binding from 1 APS serum sample. Serum sample (1:50 in 1% BSA-PBS) was preincubated for 60 minutes with increasing amounts of OxCL (•) or CLred (
Specificity of aCL IgG Binding
The serum samples were preincubated with OxCL or CLred,
and the supernatants were then tested for binding to OxCL.
Figure 2B
shows that the preincubation of 1 APS serum sample
with OxCL but not CLred removed >95% of the original aCL binding.
Using a capture assay (see Methods) we found that <20% of the total
ß2GP1 content was absorbed from the 1:50
dilution of serum during the preincubation with OxCL or CLred
(Figure 2B).
Figure 3 demonstrates that preincubation of all APS serum
samples with OxCL removed 95% of the IgG binding to OxCL. A control
incubation for each sample without phospholipid did not remove any IgG
binding to OxCL (data not shown). To examine whether a population of
antibodies binding to OxCL could also bind to another OxPL epitope, we
tested the IgG binding to copper-oxidized LDL (CuOx-LDL).
Figure 3 also shows that preincubation with OxCL absorbed
40% of the binding to CuOx-LDL. Preincubation with CLred did not
remove any IgG binding to either OxCL or CuOx-LDL. Using similar
competition assays, we demonstrated that even the slight degree of
binding to CLred observed with a few of the APS samples
(Figure 1) was nonspecific (data not
shown).
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Binding of Human Monoclonal IgG aCL
Antibodies
Figure 4 shows that monoclonal antibodies IS4 (selected for
binding to CL) and LJB8 (selected for binding to
ß2GP1) had high binding to OxCL but not to
CLred. Both of these monoclonals also bound to CuOx-LDL and to another
model epitope, malondialdehyde-modified LDL (MDA-LDL) but not native
LDL. Monoclonal antibody IS3 (selected for binding to CL) also showed
identical results (data not shown). To test if these monoclonals
specifically recognized lipid-protein adducts, we performed Western
blot analyses.
Figure 5A shows that IS4 bound to the protein of both
MDA-LDL (lane E) and CuOx-LDL (lane F), but not to native LDL (lane D)
or BSA (lane B). In addition, IS4 showed strong binding to
ß2GP1 (lane C).
Figure 5A also demonstrates the absence of human
ß2GP1 on native-LDL (lane I) or CuOx-LDL (lane
J).
Figure 5B shows that LJB8 bound to
ß2GP1 (lane B), MDA-LDL (lane D), and CuOx-LDL
(lane E) but not to native-LDL (lane C) or BSA (lane F). IS3
(Figure 5B) also showed binding to MDA-LDL (lane I) and
CuOx-LDL (lane J) but not to native LDL (lane H) or to
ß2GP1 (lane G). These data clearly demonstrate
that IS4 and LJB8 recognize similar oxidatively-modified protein
moieties of CuOx-LDL, MDA-LDL, and ß2GP1 but
that IS3 seems to recognize a different epitope.
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), CuOx-LDL (
). IS4 was originally selected for binding to CL, and LJB8 was selected for binding to ß2GP1. Antigen-coated wells were blocked with 0.25% gelatin, and monoclonal antibodies (5 µg/mL) were diluted in 0.25% gelatin. Amount of bound IgG was detected with alkaline phosphatase–labeled anti-human IgG antibody.
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Antibody Binding to Oxidatively Modified
Human ß2GP1
To test whether OxCL on microtiter wells could modify
ß2GP1 and create epitopes for aCL antibodies,
we first dried OxCL, CLred, or solvent only (ethanol) in microtiter
wells before adding ß2GP1.
Figure 6 demonstrates that protein A–purified IgG fractions
isolated from different APS patients bound to the
ß2GP1 added to OxCL-coated wells but not to
the ß2GP1 added to CLred- or ethanol-coated
wells. Note that equal amounts of ß2GP1 were
present in the wells under different conditions. Under these
conditions, these purified IgGs did not bind to OxCL alone (eg, BSA
wells).
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The data in
Figure 6 strongly suggest that OxCL can modify
ß2GP1 in such a way that it forms epitopes for
some aCL. To further test this hypothesis, we prepared covalent adducts
between OxCL and ß2GP1
(OxCL-ß2GP1).
Figure 7 demonstrates that although most of the APS serum
samples showed increased binding to the native unmodified
ß2GP1 compared with BSA (mean, 30 776 versus
6445 RLU/100 ms, respectively;
P<0.001 when using Student’s
paired t test), the binding to
OxCL-ß2GP1 (mean, 138 907 RLU/100 ms)
increased 4-fold (P<0.001).
The control samples showed very little binding to either native
ß2GP1 or OxCL-ß2GP1
(Figure 7). There was a positive correlation between the
measurements of IgG binding to OxCL and to
OxCL-ß2GP1 among the APS samples
(r=0.84,
P<0.0001, linear regression
analysis). The protein A–purified IgG fractions IS4 and LJB8 also had
increased binding to OxCL-ß2GP1 compared with
the native ß2GP1 (data not
shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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On the basis of previous observations,8 9 we proposed that some aCL bind to neoepitopes of OxPL or to neoepitopes generated by adduct formation between reactive breakdown products of OxPL and associated proteins. We now demonstrate that most aCL in the tested APS sera require CL oxidation for the CL to be an antigen. Furthermore, our data using purified IgG fractions indicate that CL oxidation is required even in the presence of ß2GP1 (ie, ß2GP1 alone or bound to CLred does not yield epitopes). Two monoclonal antibodies from two APS patients (IS4 and LBJ8) bound to both ß2GP1 and to the apoB of OxLDL but not to native apoB, implying similar oxidized lipid-protein epitopes on these different proteins. Antibody IS3 bound to both OxCL and oxidized apoB but not to ß2GP1, implying variations in oxidized lipid-protein epitopes. We postulate that a large number of different lipid-protein and even lipid-lipid adducts could form when phospholipids undergo oxidation. This would be analogous to the adduct formation between oxidized lipids and apoB that occurs during LDL oxidation.20 21 Indeed, the recent observation that CL is found in the circulation22 suggests that OxCL-apoB adducts form on OxLDL.
ß2GP1 has been reported to be the
primary serum "cofactor" or target antigen for many
aCL.2 3 4 5 10 11
We and others have reported that other proteins, such as polylysine,
LDL, and apoAI, also have cofactor
activity.9 23
ß2GP1 seems to be an excellent cofactor
because of its high avidity to phospholipids and its ability to form
adducts with OxCL (and possibly other
phospholipids9 ). To test this
idea, we demonstrated that the binding of the purified IgG fractions to
ß2GP1 occurred only when the
ß2GP1 was plated with OxCL
(Figure 6). Also, we demonstrated that APS sera, purified IgG
fractions, and human monoclonals all showed strong binding to the
OxCL-ß2GP1 adduct. Furthermore, among all APS
sera, the binding to OxCL-ß2GP1 correlated
well with the binding to OxCL. These data suggest that not only does
ß2GP1 readily form adducts with OxPL in the
microtiter wells, but it may already contain some oxidized
lipid-protein epitopes. In support of this, we demonstrated that
monoclonal antibodies cloned from APS patients recognized epitopes not
only on native ß2GP1 but also on oxidatively
modified apoB on Western blots. These data strongly indicate that these
epitopes are covalently oxidized lipid-protein adducts on
ß2GP1 and apoB. In the case of
ß2GP1, this may occur in plasma in vivo or
during the isolation procedure (ß2GP1 is often
isolated with a method involving perchloric acid precipitation that
generates a strong pro-oxidant
condition24 ).
There has been considerable difficulty in generating reliable and reproducible clinical assays for measuring aCL,25 26 which we believe is partly because of the oxidation of CL. In fact, there is variability not only between different preparations but even in the same CL preparation depending on its "age" (even if stored at -70°C under argon). Because the rate of CL oxidation is extremely difficult to control or standardize, an alternative approach might be to use an adduct between OxCL and ß2GP1 (or other protein) as an antigen.
If many aPL are, in fact, directed against oxidation-dependent epitopes and because many OxPL products can form, it is likely that some aPL are against unique oxidation-specific structures whereas other aPL are against more common oxidation-dependent structures. These data imply heterogeneity even among aPL to OxCL epitopes. Moreover, our data do not address the observations that there are many oxidation-independent antibodies that bind exclusively to conformational changes or even primary sequences of ß2GP1, independent of any bound lipid or lipid-ß2GP1 adducts.3 4 10 11 27 28 Furthermore, there may also be antibodies against conformational changes in either CL,2 29 ß2GP1,30 or prothrombin.31
There is controversy over which type of antibodies are best associated with various aspects of clinical disease.4 5 6 Knowledge that many aPL can be oxidation-dependent may give insight into some of the pathogenic events underlying the clinical manifestations of APS. These data suggest that inflammatory conditions and an attendant pro-oxidant state are associated with the generation of epitopes to many aPL. Recently, Iuliano and colleagues32 tested this hypothesis and reported a strong correlation between aCL and lipid peroxidation (isoprostane excretion) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus; treatment with vitamin E led to a reduction in isoprostane excretion.33 If antiphospholipid antibodies are indeed pathogenic or even simply a marker of enhanced lipid peroxidation, then therapies aimed at the underlying inflammation and, in particular, at ameliorating the pro-oxidant state may be beneficial.
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Acknowledgments |
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These studies were supported by NIH grants HL57505 (to J.L.W.), HL56989 (La Jolla SCOR), and AR42506 (to P.P.C.) and by a Postdoctoral Research Fellowship from the American Heart Association, California Affiliate (to S.H.).
Received July 12, 2000; revision received October 9, 2000; accepted October 16, 2000.
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 M.-K. Chang, C. J. Binder, Y. I. Miller, G. Subbanagounder, G. J. Silverman, J. A. Berliner, and J. L. Witztum Apoptotic Cells with Oxidation-specific Epitopes Are Immunogenic and Proinflammatory J. Exp. Med., December 6, 2004; 200(11): 1359 - 1370. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. Boura, K. Tselios, P. Skendros, and J. Kountouras Antiphospholipid Syndrome in Greece: Clinical and Immunological Study and Review of the Literature Angiology, July 1, 2004; 55(4): 421 - 430. [Abstract] [PDF]
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 M. A. Ozturk, I. C. Haznedaroglu, M. Turgut, and H. Goker Current Debates in Antiphospholipid Syndrome: The Acquired Antibody-Mediated Thrombophilia Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis, April 1, 2004; 10(2): 89 - 126. [Abstract] [PDF]
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A Doria, Y Shoenfeld, R Wu, P F Gambari, M Puato, A Ghirardello, B Gilburd, S Corbanese, M Patnaik, S Zampieri, et al. Risk factors for subclinical atherosclerosis in a prospective cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus Ann Rheum Dis, November 1, 2003; 62(11): 1071 - 1077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. Schattner and M. H. Liang The Cardiovascular Burden of Lupus: A Complex Challenge Arch Intern Med, July 14, 2003; 163(13): 1507 - 1510. [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Kobayashi, M. Kishi, T. Atsumi, M. L. Bertolaccini, H. Makino, N. Sakairi, I. Yamamoto, T. Yasuda, M. A. Khamashta, G. R. V. Hughes, et al. Circulating oxidized LDL forms complexes with {beta}2-glycoprotein I: implication as an atherogenic autoantigen J. Lipid Res., April 1, 2003; 44(4): 716 - 726. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Tsimikas, C. Bergmark, R. W. Beyer, R. Patel, J. Pattison, E. Miller, J. Juliano, and J. L. Witztum Temporal increases in plasma markers of oxidized low-density lipoprotein strongly reflect the presence of acute coronary syndromes J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., February 5, 2003; 41(3): 360 - 370. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. Subbanagounder, J. W. Wong, H. Lee, K. F. Faull, E. Miller, J. L. Witztum, and J. A. Berliner Epoxyisoprostane and Epoxycyclopentenone Phospholipids Regulate Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1 and Interleukin-8 Synthesis. FORMATION OF THESE OXIDIZED PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN RESPONSE TO INTERLEUKIN-1beta J. Biol. Chem., February 22, 2002; 277(9): 7271 - 7281. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. Thiagarajan Atherosclerosis, Autoimmunity, and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Circulation, October 16, 2001; 104(16): 1876 - 1877. [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Svenungsson, K. Jensen-Urstad, M. Heimburger, A. Silveira, A. Hamsten, U. de Faire, J. L. Witztum, and J. Frostegard Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Circulation, October 16, 2001; 104(16): 1887 - 1893. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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