(Circulation. 2001;103:2508.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Temporal Gradients in Shear, but Not Spatial Gradients, Stimulate Endothelial Cell Proliferation
From the Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, Calif.
Correspondence to John A. Frangos, PhD, Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412. E-mail frangos{at}ucsd.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—The effect of temporal and spatial gradients in shear on primary human endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation was investigated. The sudden-expansion flow chamber (SEFC) model was used to differentiate the effect of temporal gradients in shear from that of spatial gradients. With a sudden onset of flow, cells are exposed to both temporal and spatial gradients of shear. The temporal gradients can be eliminated by slowly ramping up the flow.
Methods and Results—HUVEC proliferation in the SEFC remained unstimulated when the onset of flow was slowly ramped. Sudden onset of flow stimulated a 105% increase of HUVEC proliferation (relative to ramped onset) within the region of flow reattachment. To further separate temporal and spatial gradients, a conventional parallel-plate flow chamber was used. A single 0.5-second impulse of 10 dyne/cm2 increased HUVEC proliferation 54±3% relative to control. When flow was slowly ramped over 30 seconds, HUVEC proliferation was not significantly different from controls. Steady laminar shear over 20 minutes inhibited HUVEC proliferation relative to controls regardless of step (36±8%) or ramp (21±5%) onsets of flow.
Conclusions—The results indicate that temporal gradients in shear stress stimulate endothelial cell proliferation, whereas spatial gradients affect endothelial proliferation no differently than steady uniform shear stress.
Key Words: hemodynamics • endothelium • blood flow • atherosclerosis
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Hemodynamic forces have long been implicated in the initiation and localization of atherosclerosis. Given the focal nature of plaque formation within regions of arterial curvatures, branches, and bifurcations, it has been suggested that certain characteristics of fluid shear stress unique to these regions may potentiate atherogenesis.1 Detailed analyses of fluid mechanics in atherosclerosis-susceptible regions of the vasculature have identified unique patterns of disturbed flow characterized by regions of flow separation, recirculation, reattachment, and perhaps most importantly, significant temporal and spatial gradients of shear stress.1 2 Temporal shear stress gradients are defined as the increase or decrease of shear stress over a small period of time at the same location, whereas spatial shear stress gradients are defined as the difference of shear stress between 2 close points of a cell at the same point in time. To date, the role of temporal and spatial gradients of shear stress in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis remains unclear. Some studies link atherogenesis to the large temporal gradients in shear due to the change of shear direction,2 3 whereas others relate this to different spatial distributions of mean wall shear stress.4
To specifically investigate the proatherosclerotic effect of flow recirculation on endothelial cells, DePaola et al5 and Truskey et al6 have developed 2 similar models that simulate in vivo spatial patterns of flow separation, recirculation, and reattachment. By creating a sudden asymmetrical expansion in the flow path of perfusing media, these models generate a large spatial gradient in shear stress over a relatively small region of a cultured endothelial monolayer. This high gradient is caused by flow separation: near to the expansion step, flow recirculates in an eddy, whereas further downstream, the flow reforms to the regular parabolic profile. In between, there is a point of flow reattachment where shear stress is zero (stagnation point). Utilizing these in vitro models of recirculating flow, a number of studies have suggested that localized spatial gradients in shear stress can induce a proatherosclerotic endothelial cell proliferation-migration-loss cycle at the point of flow reattachment.5 7 8
Although it is true that these model systems generate large spatial gradients when flow is fully established, recirculating flow undergoes a distinct developmental phase of at least several hundred milliseconds, even if the onset of flow is instantaneous.9 As such, large temporal gradients can also be produced over the same spatial region if the onset of flow is sudden, or if flow is pulsatile. Given that temporal gradients have also been shown to induce atherogenic phenotypes,10 11 either type of gradient could account for these observations.
To resolve this controversy, the present studies examine the effect of temporal and spatial gradients on endothelial proliferation in the recirculating flow model system. To separate the effects of temporal and spatial gradients in this model system, we used a modification of the asymmetrical sudden-expansion flow chamber (SEFC) described by others.6 Detailed numerical analyses of the SEFC showed that a negligible temporal change can be achieved in this model if the onset of flow is slowly ramped up over time. We also isolated and examined temporal gradients using a conventional parallel-plate flow chamber (PPFC) and well-defined flow profiles.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Cell Culture
Primary human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) isolation was performed as described previously.12 Cells were seeded onto glass microscope slides and grown to confluence within 3 days in M199 media (Irvine Scientific). All cell cultures were maintained in a humidified 5% CO2-95% air incubator at 37°C.
Flow Experiments
DMEM (Irvine Scientific) supplemented with 2% FBS
(Hyclone) and 0.5 U/mL penicillin, as well as 0.05 mg/mL streptomycin,
was used as the perfusing medium for all experimental procedures. All
flow chambers and accompanying apparatus were maintained at
37°C throughout the experiment. Time-matched sham controls (slides
mounted on flow chambers without flow) and static controls (undisturbed
slides in Petri dishes) were performed for all experimental
groups.
The SEFC
(Figure 1
) was a modification of the chamber described by
Truskey et al.6 HUVEC
monolayers were subjected to 4 hours of flow. One of 2 methods for the
onset of flow was used: (1) ramped onset (a smooth ramped increase from
0 to 3.5 mL/s within 15 seconds) or (2) sudden onset (the initiation of
fully established flow at 3.5 mL/s within 300 ms). The flow rate of 3.5
mL/s was calculated to produce a shear stress of 10
dyne/cm2 in the region of reestablished flow
downstream from the reattachment point. The continuous flow of media
through the SEFC was maintained with a constant hydrostatic pressure
head flow loop
apparatus.12
Ramped flow was manually controlled through a screw-type pinch valve
(Flow-Rite, PV-9). Immediately after the completion of each specific
flow profile, slides were removed from the SEFC to be assayed for HUVEC
proliferation (see below).
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In a conventional PPFC, confluent HUVEC monolayers on glass
slides were subjected to 1 of the following 5 laminar flow profiles
(Figure 4A): (1) impulse (0.5-second impulse of 10
dyne/cm2 followed by 20 minutes of no flow);
(2) ramped transient (a smooth 15-second ramped increase from 0 to 10
dyne/cm2, sustained for 0.5 seconds,
followed by a 15-second ramped decrease and 20 minutes of no flow); (3)
step flow (a sudden shear stress increase from 0 to 10
dyne/cm2, and then steady shear sustained
for 20 minutes); (4) ramped flow (a smooth 15-second ramped increase
from 0 to 10 dyne/cm2, and then steady shear
sustained for 20 minutes); (5) 1-Hz pulsatile (a repeated sequence of
0.5-second impulses of 10 dyne/cm2 at a
frequency of 1 Hz sustained for 20 minutes). Perfusing medium was
driven by a computer-controlled syringe pump (pump 22, Harvard
Apparatus with a controlling PC). Immediately after the
completion of each specific flow profile, slides were removed from the
PPFC to be assayed for HUVEC proliferation (see
below).
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indicates proliferation was not significantly different from sham control. *Significant difference from impulse flow (P<0.05).
Immunofluorescent Staining
Proliferating HUVECs were identified by use of a
commercially available in situ monoclonal antibody kit for the
detection of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation into cellular DNA
during DNA synthesis (Boehringer Mannheim). Immediately after
exposure to flow in either the SEFC or PPFC, slides were quickly
removed from the chamber and incubated at 37°C in M199-BrdU (10
fmol/L BrdU) for 22 hours. Slides were fixed in 70% ethanol (in
50 mmol/L glycine buffer, pH 2.0), and immunostained
for BrdU incorporation. BrdU-positive cells were visualized under a
fluorescence microscope (Nikon, Diaphot TMD). Proliferating
cells were counted by eye within adjacent 40x high-power fields of
view (HPF) along the centerline of each slide. In the SEFC, each HPF
was divided into 1.1-mm sections extending 20.2 mm downstream from
the expansion point. In the PPFC, at least 20 HPFs were counted for
each slide.
Numerical Simulations of Flow
The simulation of the fluid flow and the computation
of the time-dependent shear stress was performed with a procedure
described elsewhere.9 A 2D
model was used because the flow is homogeneous for 
80%
of the width of the flow
chamber.6 The model size of
the flow chamber, 15x0.79 mm, was resolved by a grid of 600x100
nodes. The Reynolds number (Re) of 243 was computed from the average
inflow channel velocity and geometry. For all simulations, the
steady-state flow at Re=10 was used as the initial condition. To verify
the numerical results, and also to obtain the time for flow development
under sudden-onset conditions, the flow chamber was videotaped with
ink-stained flow medium. As determined by the video visualization, a
ramp time of 200 ms was used for the simulation of the sudden-onset
flow and 15 seconds for the ramped flow. During the ramp time, Re was
increased linearly from 10 to 243 and held constant
thereafter.
Similarly, the PPFC was simulated by use of a model size of 20x0.23 mm and a grid of 200x50 nodes. A ramp time of 56 ms for the ramp from Re=0.07 to 8.8 was programmed, based on values obtained by independent video visualization. The maximum temporal gradient of shear stress was determined from this simulation.
Statistical Analysis
All experimental values are given as mean and SEM.
All reported values of n refer to the number of separate and
independent experiments from multiple primary HUVEC cultures.
Significant differences between means were calculated with a Student’s
t test. The Wilcoxon
test was used to test for a significant departure of the median from
sham control. Statistical significance was taken at the
P<0.05
level.
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Results |
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Mathematical Modeling of Flow Recirculation in the SEFC
The calculated and visualized reattachment points differed by 7%. Video visualization also revealed that downstream flow developed fully within 200 ms (data not shown). For fully established flow at 3.5 mL/s, the calculated reattachment point was found 4.8 mm downstream from the sudden-expansion point. The computer simulations revealed that the location of the highest temporal gradient (5200 dyne · cm-2 · s-1) for sudden onset was 4.1 mm downstream from the sudden-expansion point. The highest temporal gradient for the ramped flow was 16 dyne · cm-2 · s-1 and occurred at the same location. As calculated, during the dynamic-onset phase, the reattachment point moved from 0.6 mm (at Re=10) to its final position at 4.8 mm. This movement is the primary source of the temporal gradient in shear stress (Figure 2
).
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Effect of Flow Onset in SEFC on HUVEC
Proliferation
The region extending 9.0 mm downstream from the
point of expansion was taken to fully contain the spatial pattern of
flow separation and reattachment. The region of reestablished
unidirectional flow between 9.0 and 20.2 mm downstream from the
expansion point was used as an internal control for HUVEC
proliferation. Proliferation within the region of reestablished flow
(in BrdU-positive nuclei/HPF) was not significantly different between
ramped onset (35±2, n=5) and sudden onset (38±1, n=7)
(Figure 3). For both profiles, the overall
fraction of nuclei positive for BrdU within this region was 3%.
When the onset of flow in the SEFC was ramped, no significant change in
proliferation (31±1 BrdU nuclei/HPF) was observed within the region of
recirculating flow (relative to internal control). Sudden onset of flow
stimulated a peak 105% increase in proliferation (relative to the
corresponding region of ramped onset) within the region of
recirculating flow. Peak proliferation was observed within a region 4.5
to 5.6 mm from expansion. This region closely correlates with the
calculated and visualized location of flow
reattachment.
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Effect of Flow Onset in PPFC on HUVEC
Proliferation
HUVEC proliferation was expressed as percent change
relative to sham controls
(Figure 4B
). No significant differences were observed in the
level of proliferation between sham controls and static controls (data
not shown). The overall fraction of nuclei positive for BrdU in sham
control was 2%. When HUVECs were exposed to a single 0.5-second
impulse of flow, proliferation increased 54±3% (n=6). The temporal
gradient generated by the single impulse was calculated as 304
dyne · cm-2
· s-1. A single ramped transient of flow
reduced proliferation by 24±13% (n=8). Steady laminar shear for 20
minutes significantly inhibited proliferation regardless of step
(36±8%, n=8) or ramped (21±5%, n=7) onsets of flow
(P<0.05). Levels of
proliferation were not significantly different between step flow and
ramped flow. When HUVECs were exposed to continuous
oscillations in flow at a frequency of 1 Hz sustained for
20 minutes, proliferation increased by 49±7% (n=7). No significant
differences were observed in the level of proliferation between a
single impulse and 20 minutes of 1-Hz oscillation. The
maximum temporal gradient generated with the sudden onset of flow in
the PPFC was calculated to be 300 dyne ·
cm-2 ·
s-1.
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Discussion |
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The key point of this study is the separation of temporal and spatial gradients of shear stress to determine their individual role in endothelial proliferation. Two flow systems were used to expose the cells to different flow characteristics. In the SEFC, spatial gradients were generated near the region of flow separation and reattachment. In a PPFC, flow was uniform, and therefore steady shear stress without spatial gradients was generated throughout the chamber. All cells in the PPFC were exposed to the same flow profile and temporal gradient. In both chamber systems, a sudden onset of flow led to the production of a significant temporal gradient. A detailed numerical analysis of both chambers predicted that the temporal gradients were negligible with the ramped onset of flow (bottom panel in Figure 3
). In the SEFC, the peak temporal gradient was shown
to be localized close to the point of flow reattachment and the point
of highest spatial gradient
(Figures 2 and 3). The
Table
summarizes the combinations of steady shear, temporal, and spatial
gradients the cells were exposed to in this study. Through the
use of 2 different flow systems, cells were exposed individually and
specifically to flow with and without temporal and spatial gradients as
well as to combinations of the 2.
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In the present study, the sudden onset of flow in the SEFC was found to stimulate HUVEC proliferation at the site of flow reattachment. When the effects of the temporal gradient were eliminated from the SEFC by ramping the flow onset, it was found that spatial gradients alone could not stimulate proliferation. However, when temporal gradients were individually isolated in a conventional PPFC with well-defined flow profiles, they were found to be potently mitogenic. Moreover, sustained steady laminar shear stress was found to completely inhibit the mitogenic effects of temporal gradients on proliferation.
Endothelial proliferation was specifically
chosen as a marker for the effect of temporal and spatial gradients in
the recirculating flow model system. Increased
endothelial turnover in regions of recirculating flow
has long been implicated in the process of
atherogenesis.5 8 A
number of studies have demonstrated enhanced macromolecular
permeability of aortic endothelial cells during
mitosis.13 14
Because the vascular endothelium serves as a dynamic
interface between circulating blood elements and the
interstitial tissues, disruption of its permeability
characteristics may permit the localized influx of circulating LDL and
other proinflammatory macromolecules into the artery
wall.15 Consistent
with previous
studies,5 6 7
when the onset of flow in the SEFC was sudden,
endothelial proliferation was significantly stimulated
at the site of flow reattachment
(Figure 3). In sharp contrast to previous
studies,5 6 7
when the onset effects of the temporal gradients were eliminated with a
ramped onset of flow, endothelial proliferation
remained unstimulated within the same spatial region. Both onset flow
profiles generate the same spatial gradient in shear stress, which is
maximal at the site of flow reattachment. Given the highly transient
nature of the temporal gradient, and given that both maximum temporal
and spatial gradients overlap, these results suggest that the induction
of atherogenic phenotypes in the sudden asymmetrical expansion
model seen in previous
studies5 6 7
may have been due to temporal rather than spatial gradients of shear
stress. However, because the dynamics of flow initiation were not
expressly specified in the previous
studies5 6 7
and longer exposures to recirculating flow and different chamber
geometries were used, it is difficult to make direct
comparisons.
In good agreement with patterns of proliferation seen in the
SEFC, sudden onset of flow in the PPFC significantly stimulated HUVEC
proliferation relative to the ramped onset in flow
(Figure 4). Patterns of endothelial
proliferation in the PPFC were significantly altered when the temporal
gradient generated during the onset of flow was followed by sustained
steady shear stress. Consistent with previous
findings,16 17
sustained steady shear stress was found to completely inhibit
endothelial proliferation (relative to sham controls)
regardless of the flow onset profile. The ability of sustained steady
shear stress to inhibit the mitogenic effects of a temporal
gradient can also be seen in the suppression of proliferation within
the region of reestablished unidirectional flow in both the ramped and
sudden-onset flow profiles used in the SEFC.
The ultimate response of an endothelial cell
to any flow pattern is a balance between the magnitudes of the
atherogenic/mitogenic signal (temporal gradient) and the
antiatherogenic/antimitogenic signal (steady
shear).1 2 10 11
In the SEFC, the relative contribution of steady versus dynamic
components varies with the location. Although the peak temporal
gradient occurs between 3.4 and 4.5 mm
(Figure 3), a significant steady shear stress component is
still present that partially suppresses the proliferative response
to the temporal component. At the reattachment point, the mean wall
shear stress within that region ranges from zero to very low. Without
steady flow, the effect of the temporal gradient generated during the
onset of flow is preserved.
A strong positive correlation between plaque location and
low mean shear stress has long been recognized within
arterial
bifurcations.1 3
Marked oscillations in the direction of wall shear where
mean shear stress is low have been suggested to further enhance
atherogenesis.1 2 18
Given the pulsatile nature of blood flow, the enhancement of plaque
formation may result from the repeated generation of strong temporal
gradients at the point of flow reattachment where mean shear stress is
low. Therefore, the finding that 20 minutes of sustained 1-Hz pulsatile
flow in the PPFC equaled but did not further enhance
endothelial proliferation relative to a single impulse
was of interest
(Figure 4). It is possible that the maximum attainable
proliferation in our system was achieved with a single impulse. Given
the geometry of the PPFC, a single 300 dyne ·
cm-2 ·
s-1 temporal impulse in the absence of
steady flow was a potent mitogenic event, possibly reaching
saturation levels of stimulation. Continued repetition of this
stimulatory event likely could not further increase the proliferation
rate.
The biophysical mechanism by which large temporal gradients in shear stress stimulate a mitogenic response in cells remains to be determined. Rapid mechanochemical signal transduction during the sudden onset of flow similar to that observed in the present study has been reported previously,19 where specific mitogenic G-protein activation occurs within 1 second. Congruously, it has been shown that G-protein activation in cardiac fibroblasts by strain is strongly dependent on the rate of application of strain.20 Enhanced transport of mitogenic factors to the surface of cells is unlikely to mediate the mitogenic stimulus of temporal gradients, because ramped flow provided comparable transport yet led to antimitogenic effects.
In summary, we have shown that temporal gradients in shear stress lead to enhanced endothelial proliferation, whereas spatial gradients in shear stress affect endothelial proliferation no differently than steady uniform shear stress. Additionally, the promitogenic stimulus of the temporal gradient was dependent on the absence or presence of steady shear stress. When one considers these findings, it is important to bear in mind that atherosclerosis is a protracted and multifactorial disease that involves many circulating blood elements, hemodynamic forces, and a complex cascade of molecular events within the endothelium and the arterial wall. The present study was designed to emphasize a potent yet overlooked mechanical stimulus that may link recirculating flow to localized atherogenesis.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by NHLBI grant HL-40696. Drs White and Haidekker are recipients of NRSA fellowships from the NIH (1F32HL10370-01 and 1F32GM20476-01). The authors wish to thank Dr Nicolas L’Heureux and Susan Toyama for their valuable assistance.
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Footnotes |
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1 Drs White and Haidekker are joint primary authors of this work.
Received October 17, 2000; revision received January 11, 2001; accepted January 19, 2001.
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