This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Thambyrajah, J. Articles by Townend, J. N. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Thambyrajah, J. Articles by Townend, J. N. Pubmed/NCBI databases Compound via MeSH Substance via MeSH Hazardous Substances DB FOLIC ACID Related Collections Endothelium/vascular type/nitric oxide Pathophysiology Risk Factors

(Circulation. 2000;102:871.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.

Clinical Investigation and Reports

Does Folic Acid Decrease Plasma Homocysteine and Improve Endothelial Function in Patients With Predialysis Renal Failure?

J. Thambyrajah, MRCP; M. J. Landray, MRCP; F. J. McGlynn, RGN; H. J. Jones, RGN, BSc; D. C. Wheeler, MD, FRCP; J. N. Townend, MD, MRCP

From the Division of Medical Sciences (Cardiology), University of Birmingham (J.T., M.J.L., H.J.J., J.N.T.), and the Department of Nephrology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital (F.J.M., D.C.W.), Birmingham, UK.

Correspondence to Dr J. Thambyrajah, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Birmingham NHS Trust, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK. E-mail J.Thambyrajah{at}bham.ac.uk

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Background—Considerable evidence suggests that hyperhomocysteinemia is an independent vascular risk factor that promotes atherosclerosis by inducing endothelial dysfunction. Although folic acid reduces hyperhomocysteinemia, the effect on adverse vascular events is unknown. We hypothesized that in patients with chronic renal failure, a condition associated with both hyperhomocysteinemia and atherosclerosis, treatment with folic acid would improve endothelial function.

Methods and Results—In a prospective, double-blind protocol, 100 patients (mean age 62 years, 67 men) with predialysis chronic renal failure were randomized to 5 mg folic acid or placebo daily for 12 weeks. Endothelial function was assessed by measuring (1) endothelium-dependent dilation of the brachial artery, (2) combined serum nitrite/nitrate concentrations, and (3) plasma von Willebrand factor concentration. Baseline characteristics of the 2 groups were similar. At the end of the study, both serum and red cell folate concentrations were greater in the folic acid group than the placebo group [mean (95% CI) 39.0 (29.8 to 51.0) versus 7.7 (6.6 to 8.9) µg/L and 739 (613 to 891) versus 220 (184 to 262) µg/L, respectively; both P<0.001]. Despite a reduction in hyperhomocysteinemia in the folic acid group compared with the placebo group [15.1 (14.1 to 16.2) versus 20.1 (18.2 to 22.2) µmol/L; P<0.001], there were no significant differences in endothelium-dependent dilation, combined serum nitrite/nitrate concentrations, or plasma von Willebrand factor concentration between the 2 groups.

Conclusions—High-dose folic acid lowers but fails to normalize hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with predialysis chronic renal failure. This was not accompanied by an improvement of endothelial function and suggests that treatment with folic acid may not reduce the burden of vascular disease in uremia.

Key Words: atherosclerosis • endothelium • kidney • amino acids

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Epidemiological evidence indicates that a raised plasma concentration of homocysteine, a sulfur-containing amino acid, is an independent risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic disease.¹ Renal function is a major determinant of plasma homocysteine concentration, and patients with chronic renal failure have severe hyperhomocysteinemia.² Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in these patients with a 16-fold to 19-fold increased risk of myocardial ischemia and infarction compared with control populations.³ It has been suggested that homocysteine is a cause of cardiovascular disease in renal failure, and measures to reduce plasma homocysteine concentrations in this population have been advocated.⁴

Treatment with folic acid, a cosubstrate in the remethylation pathway of homocysteine, reduces plasma homocysteine in subjects with normal renal function by 30%.⁵ Small uncontrolled studies have suggested that folic acid also lowers plasma homocysteine in patients with chronic renal failure.^{4 6} However, the effect of folic acid on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality is unknown in either group. Endothelial dysfunction is the primary process in atherogenesis, and both in vitro and in vivo studies have suggested that this may be the mechanism of homocysteine induced vascular damage.^{7 8 9 10 11} We hypothesized that in patients with renal failure, treatment with folic acid might reduce plasma homocysteine concentrations and thus reverse endothelial dysfunction. Evidence of such an effect would support the possibility that folic acid might be effective in reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure.

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial, we have determined the effect of folic acid on endothelial function in patients with predialysis chronic renal failure. Endothelial function was assessed by measurement of (1) flow-mediated, endothelium-dependent dilation (EDD) of the brachial artery with the use of high-resolution ultrasound,¹² (2) combined serum nitrite and nitrate (NO_X) concentrations, stable end products of the nitric oxide radical,¹³ and (3) plasma von Willebrand factor (vWF) concentration, a circulating marker of endothelial injury.¹⁴

	Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
Subjects
One hundred patients with chronic renal failure (serum creatinine >130 µmol/L) and a plasma homocysteine concentration >12 µmol/L were recruited from the predialysis clinic at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UK. The mean age of the group was 62 years (range 22 to 84), and there were 67 men. Exclusion criteria were atrial fibrillation, current or recent (within 6 months) use of folic acid supplements, B₁₂ deficiency, or the presence of an arteriovenous fistula.

Study Design
The study was approved by the local research ethics committee, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Subjects were screened by a physician-administered questionnaire with the use of prospectively defined clinical criteria for the presence of atherosclerotic vascular disease and risk factors (Table 1). This was confirmed by a review of the hospital case notes. Measurements of waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index were noted, and after a 10-minute period of rest, blood pressure was recorded twice in the sitting position with the use of a standard sphygmomanometer. Brachial artery endothelial function was assessed, and fasting blood samples were obtained for measurement of serum urea and creatinine, lipid profile (total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides), serum and red cell folate, serum vitamin B₁₂, plasma homocysteine, serum NO_X, and plasma vWF at baseline and after 12 weeks of treatment. Combined serum NO_X concentrations were measured by first generating serum nitrite from nitrate by enzymatic conversion with nitrate reductase. After deproteinization, total serum nitrite was then measured by means of the Griess reaction.¹³ The intra-assay and interassay coefficients of variation are 6.6% and 9.2%, respectively. The glomerular filtration rate was calculated by means of the Cockcroft formula.¹⁵ Plasma vWF was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Department of Rheumatology, University of Birmingham). Patients were randomized by computer to receive 5 mg folic acid or matching placebo once daily for 12 weeks. The dose of folic acid was chosen after a review of previous studies showed that doses of up to 5 mg lowered plasma homocysteine concentrations by 30% without adverse effects.⁵ All investigators were blinded to the treatment allocation of the patients. Diet was not modified to maintain the usual dietary intake of folate.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 1. Definitions of Clinical Criteria for Presence of Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease and Risk Factors

Measurement of Plasma Homocysteine Concentration
Fasting blood samples were centrifuged within 20 minutes of collection and the plasma frozen at -70°C. Plasma total homocysteine was measured by ion-paired, reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection.¹⁶ The reference value is 6 to 12 µmol/L, and the intra-assay and interassay coefficients of variation are 3.9% and 10.7%, respectively.

High-Resolution Ultrasonography of the Brachial Artery
After the discontinuation of vasoactive medication for 18 hours, EDD of the brachial artery, a nitric oxide–dependent process, was measured by ultrasound with standard techniques.^{12 17} In each case, endothelium-independent dilation (EID), a reflection of vascular smooth muscle function, was also assessed by measuring the response to sublingual glyceryl trinitrate (GTN). Subjects were studied in the supine position at an ambient temperature of 20° to 23°C. A single investigator performed all imaging and analysis. A B-mode scan was obtained of the right brachial artery in longitudinal section between 5 and 12 cm proximal to the antecubital fossa with the use of a 7.5-MHz, phased-array transducer attached to a Sigma 44 HVD system (Kontron Instruments). Transducer positioning and depth and gain settings were adjusted to optimize the definition of anterior and posterior media-intima interfaces, which were used to demarcate the brachial artery diameter. This diameter was calculated as the average of measurements made during 4 cardiac cycles at end-diastole. All measurements were recorded on super-VHS videotape for subsequent off-line analysis. Each study comprised a series of artery diameter measurements as follows: (1) at rest after a 10-minute period of acclimatization; (2) EDD 60 to 90 seconds after the sudden deflation of a pneumatic cuff placed on the ipsilateral forearm that had been inflated to suprasystolic pressure for 5 minutes; (3) second resting diameter after a 10-minute recovery period; and (4) EID 4 minutes after sublingual administration of 800 µg GTN spray. Endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent dilation were expressed as the percent change from the mean resting artery diameter, calculated from the average of the first and second resting recordings. The repeatability (intraobserver variability) of this technique was calculated from measurements obtained from 17 subjects by the investigator. The mean (SD) relative difference in the measurements made on 2 separate occasions was 2.4% (2.1), 3.7% (3.9), and 3.2% (2.5) for the average baseline diameter, EDD, and EID, respectively.

Statistical Power and Analysis
A sample size of 90 patients in this parallel group design had an 80% power (at =0.05) to detect a difference in EDD of 2%.¹⁸ One hundred patients were recruited to ensure an adequately powered study, with a dropout rate up to 10%. Data were analyzed with the use of SPSS for Windows 9.0. Means and 95% confidence intervals were used to describe continuous variables. Variables that were not normally distributed were log-transformed. The distributions of discrete and continuous variables between groups were compared by means of ² and unpaired t tests. Linear regression was used to assess the association between potential predictor variables and measures of endothelial function. The test results are presented as 2-tailed values, and statistical significance was inferred at P<0.05.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
There were no significant differences in the baseline characteristics of the folic acid and placebo groups (Table 2). None of the patients had preexisting deficiencies in folate or vitamin B₁₂. Three patients from the folic acid group and 6 patients from the placebo group were withdrawn from the trial. Reasons for this were commencement of hemodialysis (3 patients), failure to attend the posttreatment visit (3 patients), sudden death (1 patient), and discontinuation of treatment after a new skin rash (1 patient in each group). All other patients tolerated folic acid without side effects. The only significant difference in baseline characteristics between patients withdrawn from the study and those who completed the course of treatment was a higher mean serum creatinine [400 (95% CI 279 to 575) versus 240 (223 to 258) µmol/L; P<0.05].

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 2. Baseline Characteristics of Folic Acid and Placebo Groups

After 12 weeks of treatment, serum folate concentration was significantly greater in the folic acid group than the placebo group [39.0 (95% CI 29.8 to 51.0) versus 7.7 (6.6 to 8.9) µg/L; P<0.001], as was red cell folate concentration [739 (613 to 891) versus 220 (184 to 262) µg/L; P<0.001]. The plasma homocysteine concentration in the folic acid group was significantly lower than in the placebo group [15.1 (14.1 to 16.2) versus 20.1 (18.2 to 22.2) µmol/L; P<0.001]. This represented a 24.9% reduction in plasma homocysteine in the folic acid group compared with the placebo group. At the end of the treatment period, plasma homocysteine concentration was <12 µmol/L in 20% of the folic acid group and 5% of the placebo group. There was no significant increase in either serum creatinine or glomerular filtration rate in either group during the duration of the study.

Treatment with folic acid was not associated with a significant improvement in EDD, EID, or serum NO_X concentration compared with placebo (Table 3). In addition, there was no significant difference in plasma vWF between the 2 groups (Table 3). These findings were not altered by the exclusion of current smokers, diabetics, or patients with clinical evidence of atherosclerotic vascular disease. The absolute reduction in plasma homocysteine correlated strongly with the absolute increase in both serum and red cell folate concentrations [r=-0.343; P<0.01 and r=-0.449; P<0.01, respectively]. There were no correlations between changes in EDD, EID, serum NO_X concentration, or plasma vWF and changes in either folate status or homocysteine levels.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 3. Posttreatment Measures of Endothelial Function

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 
This study demonstrates that treatment with high-dose folic acid results in a significant reduction in plasma homocysteine but no improvement in endothelial function in patients with chronic renal failure. Although no directly comparable studies have been conducted, a small open-label trial of folic acid at doses up to 15 mg daily for 1 year in hemodialysis patients also showed no improvement in EDD or plasma vWF concentration.¹⁹ However, in healthy volunteers, impaired EDD during transient acute hyperhomocysteinemia was prevented by the coadministration of folic acid.¹¹ In addition, a reduction in plasma vWF concentrations after treatment with folic acid and pyridoxine for 1 year has been reported in a small nonblinded study of patients with peripheral vascular disease.²⁰ Further study of the effect of folic acid on endothelial function in nonuremic patients with hyperhomocysteinemia is required.

There are a number of possible explanations for our findings. The chronic exposure to elevated homocysteine concentrations or other as yet undefined atherogenic influences in uremia may result in early and irreversible endothelial damage. We have previously demonstrated that endothelial dysfunction is present in patients with biochemically mild renal insufficiency,²¹ thus therapy may need to be directed at patients at a much earlier "subclinical" stage of progressive renal failure.

It is also possible that greater reductions in plasma homocysteine are required to correct endothelial dysfunction in chronic renal failure. Despite increases in serum folate to twice the upper limit of the reference range, normal plasma homocysteine concentrations (<12 µmol/L) were achieved in only 20% of treated patients so that the vascular endothelium remained exposed to supraphysiological levels of homocysteine. Although plasma homocysteine concentrations in nonuremic subjects can often be normalized by low doses of folic acid,⁵ such reductions have not been consistently achieved with up to 15 mg of folic acid per day in patients with chronic renal failure.^{4 6 19 22} The metabolism of homocysteine is also dependent on other micronutrients, including the B-group vitamins. However, correction of hyperhomocysteinemia in uremia has not been demonstrated with vitamins B₆, B₁₂,⁶ serine,²³ or betaine.¹⁹ In a placebo-controlled trial, a combination of folic acid (15 mg/d) and vitamins B₆ and B₁₂ normalized plasma homocysteine in only one third of dialysis patients.²⁴ Further work is needed to determine the optimal combination and doses of micronutrients required to lower homocysteine in patients with chronic renal failure. Furthermore, studies in vitro²⁵ and in vivo^{26 27} have suggested that increased oxidant stress is the principal mechanism of homocysteine induced endothelial toxicity. Thus, strategies to improve endothelial function in hyperhomocysteinemia may require the addition of antioxidants.

The duration of treatment required to reverse endothelial dysfunction is unclear. However, it is known that treatment with folic acid for 1 year provided no additional reduction in plasma homocysteine or improvement in endothelial function compared with a shorter course.¹⁹ This finding and the demonstration of improved endothelial function 1 month after commencing cholesterol-lowering agents in patients with hypercholesterolemia²⁸ suggest an adequate duration of treatment in this study. Finally, the multiple metabolic abnormalities associated with renal failure may interact to induce endothelial injury; thus, targeting hyperhomocysteinemia alone may be insufficient to reverse this process.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that high-dose folic acid lowers but fails to normalize plasma homocysteine concentration in patients with predialysis chronic renal failure. Partial correction of hyperhomocysteinemia was not accompanied by an improvement in endothelial function. These results do not support the routine use of folic acid in the prevention and treatment of vascular disease in this high-risk group.

	Acknowledgments

 
This work was funded by a project grant from the British Heart Foundation, which supported Dr Thambyrajah and Dr Townend. We would like to thank the patients, doctors, and staff at the Department of Nephrology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UK, for all their help in enabling us to complete this study. We would also like to thank the Department of Rheumatology, University of Birmingham, for measuring plasma von Willebrand factor concentration and the Clinical Investigation Unit, University of Birmingham, for measuring combined nitrite concentrations.

Received December 22, 1999; revision received March 13, 2000; accepted March 16, 2000.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References

 

1. Arnesen E, Refsum H, Bonaa KH, et al. Serum total homocysteine and coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol. 1995;24:704–709.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
   
2. Chauveau P, Chadefaux B, Coude M, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for atherosclerosis in chronic uremic patients. Kidney Int. 1993;41:S72–S77.
   
3. Raine AE, Margreiter R, Brunner FP, et al. Report on management of renal failure in Europe, XXII, 1991. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1992;2:7–35.
   
4. Wilcken DE, Dudman NP, Tyrrell PA, et al. Folic acid lowers elevated plasma homocysteine in chronic renal insufficiency: possible implications for prevention of vascular disease. Metabolism Clin Exp. 1988;37:697–701.
   
5. Anonymous. Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements: meta-analysis of randomised trials: Homocysteine Lowering Trialists’ Collaboration. BMJ. 1998;316:894–898.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
   
6. Wilcken DE, Gupta VJ, Betts AK. Homocysteine in the plasma of renal transplant recipients: effects of cofactors for methionine metabolism. Clin Sci. 1981;61:743–749.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
7. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s. Nature. 1993;362:801–809.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
   
8. Thambyrajah J, Townend JN. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis: mechanisms for injury. Eur Heart J.. 2000;21:967–974.[Free Full Text]
   
9. Stamler JS, Osborne JA, Jaraki O, et al. Adverse vascular effects of homocysteine are modulated by endothelium-derived relaxing factor and related oxides of nitrogen. J Clin Invest. 1993;91:308–318.
   
10. Woo KS, Chook P, Lolin YI, et al. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia is a risk factor for endothelial dysfunction in humans. Circulation. 1997;96:2542–2544.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
11. Usui M, Matsuoka H, Miyazaki H, et al. Endothelial dysfunction by acute hyperhomocyst(e)inaemia: restoration by folic acid. Clin Sci. 1999;96:235–239.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
12. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992;340:1111–1115.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
13. Moshage H, Kok B, Huizenga JR, et al. Nitrite and nitrate determinations in plasma: a critical evaluation. Clin Chem. 1995;41:892–896.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
14. Boneu B, Abbal M, Plante J, et al. Factor-VIII complex and endothelial damage. Lancet. 1975;1:1430. Letter.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
15. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16:31–41.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
16. Martin SC, Hilton AC, Bartlett WA, et al. Plasma total homocysteine measurement by ion-paired reversed-phase HPLC with electrochemical detection. Biomed Chromatogr. 1998;12:1–2.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
17. Joannides R, Haefeli WE, Linder L, et al. Nitric oxide is responsible for flow-dependent dilatation of human peripheral conduit arteries in vivo. Circulation. 1995;91:1314–1319.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
18. Sorensen KE, Celermajer DS, Spiegelhalter DJ, et al. Non-invasive measurement of human endothelium dependent arterial responses: accuracy and reproducibility. Br Heart J. 1995;74:247–253.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
19. van Guldener C, Janssen MJ, Lambert J, et al. No change in impaired endothelial function after long-term folic acid therapy of hyperhomocysteinaemia in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1998;13:106–112.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
20. Van den Berg M, Boers GH, Franken DG, et al. Hyperhomocysteinaemia and endothelial dysfunction in young patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Eur J Clin Invest. 1995;25:176–181.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
21. Thambyrajah J, Landray MJ, McGlynn FJ, et al. Abnormalities of endothelial function in patients with pre-dialysis renal failure. Heart. 2000;83:205–209.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
22. Dierkes J, Domrose U, Ambrosch A, et al. Response of hyperhomocysteinemia to folic acid supplementation in patients with end-stage renal disease. Clin Nephrol. 1999;51:108–115.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
23. Bostom AG, Shemin D, Lapane KL, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia and traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in end-stage renal disease patients on dialysis: a case-control study. Atherosclerosis. 1995;114:93–103.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
24. Bostom AG, Shemin D, Lapane KL, et al. High dose-B-vitamin treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in dialysis patients. Kidney Int. 1996;49:147–152.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
25. Wall RT, Harlan JM, Harker LA, et al. Homocysteine-induced endothelial cell injury in vitro: a model for the study of vascular injury. Thromb Res. 1980;18:113–121.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
    
26. Nappo F, De Rosa N, Marfella R, et al. Impairment of endothelial functions by acute hyperhomocysteinaemia and reversal by antioxidant vitamins. JAMA. 1999;281:2113–2118.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
27. Chambers JC, McGregor A, Jean-Marie J, et al. Demonstration of rapid onset vascular endothelial dysfunction after hyperhomocysteinemia: an effect reversible with vitamin C therapy. Circulation. 1999;99:1156–1160.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    
28. O’Driscoll G, Green D, Taylor RR. Simvastatin, an HMG-coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, improves endothelial function within 1 month. Circulation. 1997;95:1126–1131.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    

This article has been cited by other articles:

				I. Baragetti, S. Raselli, A. Stucchi, V. Terraneo, S. Furiani, L. Buzzi, K. Garlaschelli, E. Alberghini, A. L. Catapano, and G. Buccianti Improvement of endothelial function in uraemic patients on peritoneal dialysis: a possible role for 5-MTHF administration Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., November 1, 2007; 22(11): 3292 - 3297. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. S. Pena, E. Wiltshire, R. Gent, L. Piotto, C. Hirte, and J. Couper Folic Acid Does Not Improve Endothelial Function in Obese Children and Adolescents Diabetes Care, August 1, 2007; 30(8): 2122 - 2127. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. J. Anderson, Y.-H. Sun, J. Hubacek, M. E. Hyndman, S. Verma, L. Shewchuk, and N. Scott-Douglas Effects of folinic acid on forearm blood flow in patients with end-stage renal disease Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., July 1, 2006; 21(7): 1927 - 1933. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. Weiss, N. Ide, T. Abahji, L. Nill, C. Keller, and U. Hoffmann Aged Garlic Extract Improves Homocysteine-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction in Macro- and Microcirculation J. Nutr., March 1, 2006; 136(3): 750S - 754S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Homocysteine Lowering Trialists' Collaboration Dose-dependent effects of folic acid on blood concentrations of homocysteine: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2005; 82(4): 806 - 812. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Fux, D. Kloor, M. Hermes, T. Rock, B. Proksch, A. Grenz, U. Delabar, R. Bucheler, S. Igel, K. Morike, et al. Effect of acute hyperhomocysteinemia on methylation potential of erythrocytes and on DNA methylation of lymphocytes in healthy male volunteers Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, October 1, 2005; 289(4): F786 - F792. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Vychytil, M. Fodinger, J. Pleiner, M. Mullner, P. Konner, S. Skoupy, C. Rohrer, M. Wolzt, and G. Sunder-Plassmann Acute effect of amino acid peritoneal dialysis solution on vascular function Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2003; 78(5): 1039 - 1045. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. Stam, C. van Guldener, C. G. Schalkwijk, P. M. ter Wee, A. J. M. Donker, and C. D. A. Stehouwer Impaired renal function is associated with markers of endothelial dysfunction and increased inflammatory activity Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., May 1, 2003; 18(5): 892 - 898. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Vanholder, G. Glorieux, and N. Lameire Uraemic toxins and cardiovascular disease Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., March 1, 2003; 18(3): 463 - 466. [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. Bayes, M. C. Pastor, J. Bonal, J. Junca, J. M. Hernandez, N. Riutort, A. Foraster, and R. Romero Homocysteine, C-reactive protein, lipid peroxidation and mortality in haemodialysis patients Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., January 1, 2003; 18(1): 106 - 112. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. Weiss, C. Keller, U. Hoffmann, and J. Loscalzo Endothelial dysfunction and atherothrombosis in mild hyperhomocysteinemia Vascular Medicine, August 1, 2002; 7(3): 227 - 239. [Abstract] [PDF]

				G. Buccianti, S. Raselli, I. Baragetti, F. Bamonti, E. Corghi, C. Novembrino, C. Patrosso, F. M. Maggi, and A. L. Catapano 5-methyltetrahydrofolate restores endothelial function in uraemic patients on convective haemodialysis Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., May 1, 2002; 17(5): 857 - 864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M.C. Verhaar, E. Stroes, and T.J. Rabelink Folates and Cardiovascular Disease Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., January 1, 2002; 22(1): 6 - 13. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. N. FRIEDMAN, A. G. BOSTOM, J. SELHUB, A. S. LEVEY, and I. H. ROSENBERG The Kidney and Homocysteine Metabolism J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., October 1, 2001; 12(10): 2181 - 2189. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Thambyrajah, M. J. Landray, H. J. Jones, F. J. McGlynn, D. C. Wheeler, and J. N. Townend A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of the effect of homocysteine-lowering therapy with folic acid on endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., June 1, 2001; 37(7): 1858 - 1863. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. A Brown and F. B Hu Dietary modulation of endothelial function: implications for cardiovascular disease Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2001; 73(4): 673 - 686. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Bennett-Richards, M. Kattenhorn, A. Donald, G. Oakley, Z. Varghese, L. Rees, and J.E. Deanfield Does Oral Folic Acid Lower Total Homocysteine Levels and Improve Endothelial Function in Children With Chronic Renal Failure? Circulation, April 16, 2002; 105(15): 1810 - 1815. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Thambyrajah, J. Articles by Townend, J. N. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Thambyrajah, J. Articles by Townend, J. N. Pubmed/NCBI databases Compound via MeSH Substance via MeSH Hazardous Substances DB FOLIC ACID Related Collections Endothelium/vascular type/nitric oxide Pathophysiology Risk Factors