(Circulation. 2000;102:3092.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Alcohol Consumption and Risk of Intermittent Claudication in the Framingham Heart Study
From the Department of Medicine, Section of Preventive Medicine & Epidemiology (L.D., D.L., J.M.M., R.C.E.), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass; the Framingham Heart Study/NHLBI (D.L., J.M.M.), Framingham, Mass; the Section of General Internal Medicine (J.M.M.), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass; and the Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics (L.A.C.), Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Mass.
Correspondence to Luc Djoussé, MD, MPH, Boston University School of Medicine, Section of Preventive Medicine & Epidemiology, Department of Medicine, 715 Albany St, Room B-612, Boston, MA 02118-2526. E-mail: ldjousse{at}bu.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Intermittent claudication (IC) is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. The relation of alcohol consumption to the risk of IC remains controversial. The purpose of this study was to assess the relation of alcohol consumption and type of beverage to the development of IC among participants in the Framingham Heart Study.
Methods and
Results—Alcohol consumption was categorized as
0, 1 to 6, 7 to 12, 13 to 24, and 
25 g/d. During a mean follow-up of
6.8 years, 414 subjects developed IC. From the lowest to the highest
category of alcohol intake, the age-standardized incidence rates of IC
were 5.3, 4.1, 4.2, 3.2, and 4.6 cases/1000 person-years for men and
3.4, 2.5, 1.5, 1.9, and 2.5, respectively, for women. A
multivariate Cox regression model demonstrated an
inverse relation, with the lowest IC risk at levels of 13 to 24 g/d for
men and 7 to 12 g/d for women compared with nondrinkers; the hazard
ratio (95% CI) was 0.67 (0.42 to 0.99) for men and 0.44 (0.23 to 0.80)
for women. This protective effect was seen mostly with wine and beer
consumption.
Conclusions—Our data are consistent with a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on IC risk, with lowest risk observed in men consuming 13 to 24 g/d (1 to 2 drinks/d) and in women consuming 7 to 12 g/d (0.5 to 1 drink/d).
Key Words: alcohol • smoking • peripheral vascular disease
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Intermittent claudication (IC) is a clinical manifestation of peripheral arterial disease and a predictor of myocardial infarction and stroke.1 IC is associated with a 2- to 4-fold increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality2 3 4 and with increased healthcare costs in the United States.5 Previous studies have identified cigarette smoking, diabetes mellitus, older age, and elevated blood pressure as major risk factors for IC.6 7 8 The relation of alcohol consumption to the development of IC remains controversial. Weak and inconsistent inverse relations have been reported,9 10 as well as positive associations between alcohol and risk of IC.11 12 In the Physicians’ Health Study,13 alcohol consumption was associated with a 26% reduction of IC risk. Few studies have assessed the effects of different types of alcohol on the risk of IC. The purpose of this study was to assess the relation of total alcohol consumption to IC among participants in the Framingham Heart Study and to determine whether this relation differed by type of alcoholic beverage.
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Methods |
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The Framingham Heart Study is a population-based cohort study that began in 1948 in Framingham, Mass. The original cohort included 5209 subjects aged 28 to 62 years at the first examination. In 1971, 5124 offspring (and their spouses) of the original cohort (referred to as the offspring cohort) were entered into a prospective cohort study. Detailed descriptions of the Framingham Heart Study have been published previously.14 15 16 Informed consent was obtained from study participants, and the study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Boston Medical Center.
Assessment of Alcohol Consumption
Data on alcohol were collected at examinations 2, 7,
12 through 15, and 17 and at all subsequent examinations for the
original cohort and at all examinations for the offspring cohort by use
of a standardized questionnaire. At every qualifying visit, subjects
were asked if they had consumed alcohol in the past 12 months. If yes,
the average weekly number of drinks consumed during the past 12 months
for spirits, beer, and wine was
recorded.17 For this
study, a drink was defined as 360 mL of beer containing 12.6 g of
alcohol, 120 mL of wine containing 13.2 g of alcohol, or 45 mL of
80-proof spirits containing 15 g of alcohol. At each examination,
total alcohol was computed as the sum of the beverage-specific alcohol
contents of beer, wine, and spirits. The alcohol content of a
"typical drink" at the time of examinations 2 and 7 was different
from that of drinks consumed later in that the typical glass or bottle
of beer at the time was 240 mL (rather than 360 mL), the typical wine
was fortified wine with higher alcohol content than table wine, and the
usual serving size of spirits was larger than it was
later.18 Therefore, alcohol
consumption data from these 2 examinations were adjusted, as follows: 1
drink of wine, beer, and spirits in examination 2 or 7 is equivalent to
1.68 drinks of wine, 0.91 drinks of beer, and 1.75 drinks of spirits,
respectively, in subsequent examinations. Because alcohol is lighter
than water, we used 1 mL of alcohol as equivalent to 0.886 g to convert
alcohol to grams. These analyses are limited to subjects with
nonmissing data on alcohol consumption.
Outcome
During each examination, subjects were queried about
exertional leg discomfort and about cramping in the calf related to
steepness of incline and rapidity of walking or that forced the subject
to stop walking. Any subject with possible or definite IC was
interviewed independently by a second physician. A detailed description
of IC criteria has been published
previously.8 A review panel
of 3 physicians made the final diagnostic determination of
presence or absence of IC.
Other Variables
Smoking information was assessed through
questionnaire. Pack-years of cigarettes smoked was calculated by
multiplying the number of cigarettes smoked per day by the duration of
smoking in years divided by 20. Resting blood pressure was measured
twice by a physician according to a standard protocol. Diabetes
mellitus was defined as a history of diabetes mellitus or current
treatment with hypoglycemic medication. Prevalent coronary
heart disease (CHD) was ascertained by a standard protocol described
previously.14 19
Total cholesterol was measured at examinations 1 through
11, 13 through 15, 20, 22, and 23 for the original cohort and at all
examinations for the offspring cohort. HDL cholesterol was
measured at examinations 11, 15, 20, 22, and 23 for the original cohort
and at all examinations for the offspring cohort. Total
cholesterol was measured by a manual Abell-Kendall
procedure20 ; HDL was
measured by a heparin–manganese chloride procedure according to the
protocol adopted by the Lipid Research
Clinics21 (examinations 11
and 15 for the original cohort and 1 and 2 for the offspring cohort) or
by the dextran-Mg2+
method22 (from examinations
20 and 3 onward in the original and offspring cohorts,
respectively).
Statistical Methods
We conducted sex-specific analyses because
men smoked more cigarettes and generally consumed larger amounts of
alcohol than women did. Because alcohol consumption and/or the number
of cigarettes smoked per day changed over time, a pooling method was
used to update alcohol consumption and other covariates. Information on
alcohol consumption and all other covariates obtained at baseline were
updated at examinations 7, 12, 17, and 22 for the original cohort and
at examinations 2 and 4 for the offspring cohort. Each
person-examination and its 8-year follow-up period were considered as 1
observation in the data
analysis.23 Given
the 10-year-interval between examinations 2 and 7 in the original
cohort and the 4-year-interval between examinations in the offspring
cohort, we chose 8-year intervals within which the risk of IC was
assessed. Each subject could contribute to several observations in the
analyses if he/she was free of IC at the time of alcohol
update. Of the 19 293 observations with alcohol data, 954 were deleted
because of missing information on pack-years of cigarettes smoked. The
final data set consisted of 18 339 observations. We combined the 2
cohorts for 2 reasons. First, the sex-specific relations of alcohol to
IC were similar in both cohorts: from the lowest to the highest
category of alcohol consumption, multivariate adjusted
hazard ratios among women were 0.77, 0.43, 0.37, and 0.67 and 0.75,
0.45, 0.38, and 0.70 for the offspring and original cohorts,
respectively, compared with nondrinkers; for men, corresponding hazard
ratios were 0.98, 0.94, 0.74, and 0.69 and 1.00, 0.92, 0.78, and 0.71,
respectively, for the offspring and original cohorts. Second, the
sex-specific results between the 2 cohorts were similar when the
follow-up in the original cohort was begun at examination 12, which
corresponds to the inception period of the offspring cohort (results
not shown).
Using the total alcohol intake at the beginning of each
follow-up period, we created the following categories of alcohol
intake: 0, 1 to 6, 7 to 12, 13 to 24, and 25 g/d and 4 indicator
variables. These cutoff points were chosen because we
assumed that a drink is 
12 g of ethanol, and we wanted to evaluate
the alcohol-IC relation specifically using easily understandable cut
points, such as "up to a half drink per day" or "a half to 1
drink per day." In addition, we were particularly interested in the
alcohol-IC relation in alcohol consumption ranges commonly referred to
as "light-to-moderate drinking."
Person-time of follow-up (pooled examinations each with 8-year follow-up) was calculated as the time from the beginning of each follow-up period to the occurrence of either (1) IC, (2) loss to follow-up, (3) 8 years of follow-up, or (4) December 1995. Using the direct standardization method, we calculated the age-adjusted incidence rates of IC using the sex-specific age distribution of the total population. Within each sex, we fitted a Cox model to estimate the association of alcohol with IC, adjusting for age (5-year categories), diabetes mellitus (yes/no), pack-years of cigarettes smoked, smoking status (never, former, and current smokers), systolic blood pressure, and prevalence of CHD (yes/no). Assumptions for the proportional hazard models were met. To further explore confounding by smoking, we conducted additional analyses stratified by smoking status (never-smokers, former smokers, and current smokers). Similarly, we assessed the effects of age, diabetes mellitus, and prevalent CHD on the alcohol-IC association using stratification; we did not have sufficient numbers of IC cases among subjects with diabetes mellitus to perform a separate analysis.
We also assessed the association of beverage-specific
alcohol with IC. For these analyses, each beverage was
categorized as 0, 1 to 7, or 8 drinks/wk. We used drinks/wk because
we were interested in the nonalcoholic components of a drink that might
affect the risk of IC. Because sex-specific results were similar, we
combined both sexes to gain statistical power. The effects of each
beverage were adjusted for the other 2 beverages. We performed
additional analyses restricted to 13 406 observations with
data on total and HDL cholesterol to explore whether the
alcohol-IC association was mediated through lipid
effects.
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Results |
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Of the 18 339 observations free of IC at baseline, 8012 were in men and 10 327 were in women with mean age (SD) of 49.0 (13.5) and 51.2 (14.5) years, respectively. During a mean follow-up of 6.8 years, 229 men and 185 women developed IC. Table 1
shows the baseline characteristics of the
study sample: alcohol consumption was associated with cigarette smoking
and lower prevalence of CHD in both sexes; nondrinkers were older than
drinkers; and men had higher rates of prevalent CHD and were more
likely to be former or current smokers than women. From the lowest to
the highest category of alcohol intake, the age-adjusted incidence
rates of IC were 5.27, 4.09, 4.18, 3.20, and 4.56 cases/1000
person-years for men and 3.40, 2.52, 1.50, 1.91, and 2.48 for women
(Table 2).
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Compared with nondrinkers, the
multivariate adjusted hazard ratios showed an inverse
relation of alcohol to IC in both sexes, with the lowest IC risk at an
alcohol level of 13 to 24 g/d (1 to 2 drinks/d) among men and 7 to
12 g/d (0.5 to 1 drink/d) among women; at these intake levels, the
risk of IC was 33% and 56% lower than that of nondrinking men and
women, respectively
(Table 2
). When stratified by age, the trend was suggestive
of an inverse relation of alcohol to IC, mostly below the age of 65
years among men and across all ages among women (data not shown). An
inverse relation was seen among never, former, and current smokers
(Table 3). There was an interaction between smoking and
alcohol: drinking was associated with greater IC rate reduction
among smokers than nonsmokers (rate difference of 6.7 versus 0.23 for
men and 2.96 versus 1.93 for women,
Table 4). The inverse relation persisted when the
analysis was restricted to subjects without diabetes and
subjects with or without prevalent CHD at baseline (data not shown).
There were too few subjects with diabetes at baseline to allow subgroup
analysis. There was only a moderate attenuation of the point
estimates when additional adjustment was made for HDL
cholesterol
(Table 5). The inverse relation was seen primarily with beer
and wine
(Table 6).
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Discussion |
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IC is associated with considerable morbidity and cardiovascular mortality.2 3 4 Moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with a reduced risk of CHD and all-cause mortality.24 25 26 27 The present study demonstrated an inverse relation between alcohol consumption and IC risk, with the lowest risk observed at a consumption level of 13 to 24 g/d for men and 7 to 12 g/d for women. The alcohol-IC relation was seen primarily with wine and beer consumption. This inverse relation was independent of major predictors of IC. We also demonstrated a smoking-alcohol interaction in both sexes.
Limited data are available on the effects of alcohol on IC. Most of the few observational studies that have evaluated this relation have yielded weak and inconsistent results.9 10 11 12 The lack of sufficient power and incomplete adjustment for confounding by smoking may have contributed to these inconsistencies. Gofin et al11 reported a null finding in a study with 25 cases of IC in which smoking was dichotomized (yes/no). However, in a prospective study design, Camargo et al13 showed that moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk of peripheral arterial disease. Although limited to men, those findings are consistent with our results. Little information is available on the effects of type of alcoholic beverage on IC. In a cross-sectional study, ankle brachial pressure index was related to wine consumption but not to beer or spirits consumption in men.10
Our findings have potential limitations. First, alcohol consumption in this study was self-reported. Although we used trained interviewers and a standardized questionnaire, study participants may have underestimated their usual alcohol intake. Because such underestimation is more likely to attenuate the true effect measure, this bias would not explain these findings. Second, we were not able to distinguish binge drinkers from regular drinkers, or ex-drinkers (who may have quit before the baseline examination because of an illness) from never-drinkers. Because we would expect the lowest IC risk among regular moderate drinkers compared with binge drinkers, a potential bias introduced by lack of adjustment for binge drinking would bring the hazard ratio toward the null and would not explain our results. Third, loss to follow-up and missing data may not have been at random and could have biased the findings. Although the proportionality of hazards was met, we do not know whether the assumed model matched the true data. Fourth, confounding by unmeasured variables (eg, dietary factors and exercise) and/or misclassification of IC cases might have been an issue in this study despite the standard criteria for case ascertainment. The consistency of the results in both sexes and both cohorts, as well as the known physiological mechanisms of alcohol, makes chance unlikely as the cause of our findings. Finally, the fact that our participants did not consume large amounts of alcohol on average and were almost all white limits the generalizability of our findings. The large sample size, with a wide age range and similar numbers of men and women, is an important strength of the present study. Another strength of the present study is that to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has examined the association between beverage-specific alcohol and IC.
Several mechanisms for an inverse relation of alcohol to IC have been proposed. Alcohol raises HDL cholesterol.13 28 29 30 HDL plays an important role in LDL transport from the bloodstream to the liver, where it is degraded.31 Oxidized LDL is a key element in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis.32 Fowkes et al33 reported an inverse association between HDL and IC. We demonstrated that adjustment for HDL only moderately attenuated the point estimates, indicating that the observed association is largely mediated through other mechanisms. In addition, alcohol intake may prevent thrombogenesis or improve fibrinolysis through its favorable influence on fibrinogen,34 plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1,35 36 factor VII,35 and lowering of platelet aggregation.37 38 39 Alcohol might also reduce the risk of IC through direct peripheral vascular effects.40 Nonalcoholic components may contribute to IC risk reduction for wine and beer, because beer and wine contain polyphenols with antioxidant properties; phenolic compounds may delay the onset of atherosclerosis by preventing oxidation of LDL.41 Phytoalexin, an antifungal compound found in grape skin (found in higher concentration in red wine), may raise HDL and reduce platelet aggegration.10
In conclusion, this study shows an inverse relation between
alcohol consumption and IC in both sexes, with the greatest risk
reduction at consumption levels of 12 to 24 g/d (1 to 2 drinks/d)
for men and 7 to 12 g/d (0.5 to 1 drink/d) for women. Further
studies are needed to confirm the levels of alcohol associated with
greatest IC risk
reduction.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH/NHLBI contract N01-HC-38038) and the Institute on Lifestyle and Health, Boston University School of Medicine.
Received May 8, 2000; revision received July 18, 2000; accepted July 31, 2000.
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