(Circulation. 2000;102:3046.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Decreased SLIM1 Expression and Increased Gelsolin Expression in Failing Human Hearts Measured by High-Density Oligonucleotide Arrays
From the Department of Molecular Cardiology (J.Y., M.B.), Molecular Biotechnology Core (L.H.), Center for Anesthesiology Research (C.S.M., N.R.D.), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio; Departments of Cardiology (J.B.Y., G.S.F.), Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery (P.M.M.), Kaufman Center for Heart Failure, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio; Department of Physiology and Biophysics (C.S.M., M.B.), School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; Division of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology (M.A.S., D.F.), Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University (C.A.M.), Melbourne, Australia.
Correspondence to Meredith Bond, PhD, Department of Molecular Cardiology NB50, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195. E-mail bondm{at}ccf.org
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Abstract |
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Background—Failing human hearts are characterized by altered cytoskeletal and myofibrillar organization, impaired signal transduction, abnormal protein turnover, and impaired energy metabolism. Thus, expression of multiple classes of genes is likely to be altered in human heart failure.
Methods and Results—We
used high-density oligonucleotide arrays to explore changes in
expression of 
7000 genes in 2 nonfailing and 2 failing human hearts
with diagnoses of end-stage ischemic and dilated cardiomyopathy,
respectively. We report altered expression of (1) cytoskeletal and
myofibrillar genes (striated muscle LIM protein-1 [SLIM1], myomesin,
nonsarcomeric myosin regulatory light chain-2
[MLC2], and ß-actin); (2) genes responsible
for degradation and disassembly of myocardial proteins
(
1-antichymotrypsin, ubiquitin, and
gelsolin); (3) genes involved in metabolism (ATP synthase -subunit,
succinate dehydrogenase flavoprotein [SDH Fp] subunit, aldose
reductase, and TIM17 preprotein translocase); (4) genes responsible for
protein synthesis (elongation factor-2 [EF-2], eukaryotic initiation
factor-4AII, and transcription factor homologue-HBZ17); and (5) genes
encoding stress proteins (B-crystallin and µ-crystallin). In 5
additional failing hearts and 4 additional nonfailing controls, we then
compared expression of proteins encoded by the differentially expressed
genes, B-crystallin, SLIM1, gelsolin,
1-antichymotrypsin, and ubiquitin. In each
case, changes in protein expression were consistent with changes in
transcript measured by microarray analysis. Gelsolin protein expression
was also increased in cardiomyopathic hearts from
tropomodulin-overexpressing (TOT) mice and rac1-expressing (racET)
mice.
Conclusions—Altered expression of the genes identified in this study may contribute to development of the heart failure phenotype and/or represent compensatory mechanisms to sustain cardiac function in failing human hearts.
Key Words: heart failure • cardiomyopathy • gene expression
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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End-stage heart failure represents a clinical end point secondary to a diverse range of cardiac diseases, eg, hypertension, coronary artery disease, left ventricular hypertrophy, valvular heart disease, idiopathic cardiomyopathy, diabetes, viral infection, and genetic mutations. All failing hearts have in common a temporary or permanent decline in contractile function. At the cellular level, the functional impairment is observed as a decreased amplitude and time course of myocyte contraction, as well as abnormal calcium cycling. Abnormal cytoskeletal remodeling, attenuated inotropic response to ß-adrenergic stimulation, impaired metabolism, and altered protein turnover are also correlated with development of heart failure. There is an urgent need to better understand the cellular events that trigger the cascade of functional and structural changes that result in development of heart failure, as well as the compensatory changes that take place to preserve cardiac function.
Because heart failure is a multifactorial disease, expression of multiple clusters of genes is likely to be altered.1 Large-scale sequencing studies have shown that the frequencies of several expressed sequence tags (ESTs) differ in cDNA libraries from hypertrophic versus nonfailing hearts.2 Differential patterns of gene transcription by microarray analysis have also been reported in animal models of cardiomyopathy and myocardial infarction.3 4 However, quantitative measurements of changes in expression of large numbers of genes in end-stage human heart failure have not been reported.
We used high-density oligonucleotide arrays to
simultaneously quantify expression of 7000 full-length genes in 2
nonfailing and 2 failing human hearts with diagnoses of
end-stage ischemic (ICM) and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM),
respectively. Nineteen genes in 5 gene classes demonstrated altered
expression levels in both failing hearts. Western blot analysis of a
sample of proteins encoded by a sample of these genes showed consistent
changes in protein expression. Our results point to changes in
cytoskeletal and myofibrillar organization, protein turnover, and
energy metabolism in the failing human
heart.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Human Myocardium
ICM and DCM myocardium was obtained from 7 explanted hearts of transplant recipients at the Cleveland Clinic Foundation with diagnoses of end-stage heart failure (New York Heart Association class IV) (Table 1
). Tissue from 6 nonfailing human hearts was
obtained from unmatched organ donors through LifeBanc of Northeast Ohio
(Table 1). All tissue was flash-frozen as previously
described.5 The protocol for
tissue procurement was approved by the Cleveland Clinic Institutional
Review Board.
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Hybridization of cRNA to the High-Density
Oligonucleotide Arrays
Poly(A)+ RNA (1 µg) was
isolated from the left ventricular free wall of 2 failing (ICM1 and
DCM1) and 2 nonfailing (NF1 and NF2)
hearts.6 Biotinylated cRNA
was generated as previously
described.7 Fragmented
biotin-cRNAs (50 µg) were hybridized to the perfect match (PM) and
mismatch (MM) oligonucleotides on the A, B, C, and D Hu6800
GeneChip
(Affymetrix).7
Data Analysis
Average difference intensity (Avg Diff), equivalent
to level of gene expression, was determined for each cDNA on the chips
by use of GeneChip 3.1 software (Affymetrix). In addition to the
default parameters of the software, we added additional criteria that a
threshold of 6 positive probe pairs and >50 Avg Diff units per
transcript were required for a gene to be considered "present" in
our samples.
Probe sets specific for the 5', middle, and 3' region of the GAPDH and ß-actin genes are present on each of the A, B, C, and D Hu6800 arrays. Thus, we performed an independent comparison of GAPDH and ß-actin expression by 2-way ANOVA to determine differences in hybridization efficiency among the A-D chips of the same sample and differences in expression level of the GAPDH and ß-actin genes among the 4 different hearts. The Tukey test was then performed to identify any significant differences in pairwise comparisons for ß-actin expression among the 4 hearts. We used a global scaling approach for data comparison, with the average hybridization intensity on each of the A-D chips scaled to a constant value, 150, as recommended by the manufacturer.
Among the 7085 oligonucleotide probes on the Hu6800 GeneChips, 1300 can hybridize to 1 to 5 genes with high sequence homology. To eliminate results from nonspecific hybridization, we excluded these 1300 oligonucleotide probes from our analysis. Oligonucleotides for ribosomal genes were also eliminated. We were therefore able to analyze cRNA hybridization to 5708 of 7085 probes on the Hu6800 arrays.
Northern Blot Analysis
To confirm that genes known to be expressed in the
heart were present in our samples, we performed Northern blot analysis
to determine the abundance of L-type Ca2+
channel and
Na+/Ca2+
exchanger transcripts in the ICM1, DCM1, NF1, and NF2 hearts
(Table 1
). Previous studies have shown differential
expression of these 2 genes in failing and nonfailing
hearts.8 9 cDNA
probes for the human L-type Ca2+ channel and
the Na+/Ca2+
exchanger genes, obtained from the IMAGE consortium
(http://www-bio.llnl.gov), were labeled with
[32P]dCTP by random prime labeling. A
24mer oligonucleotide for rat 18S rRNA was radiolabeled with
T4 kinase. Ten micrograms of
total RNA was used for Northern blot
analysis.10
Western Blot Analysis
Protein levels of striated muscle LIM protein-1
(SLIM1), gelsolin, B-crystallin,
1-antichymotrypsin, and ubiquitin were
measured in 5 different failing (DCM2 to DCM6) and 4 other nonfailing
(NF3 to NF6) human hearts
(Table 1). The choice of the proteins that we measured by
Western blot was determined exclusively by availability of specific
antibodies and cross-reactivity of these antibodies with human heart
tissue. Protein levels of gelsolin were also determined in
cardiomyopathic hearts from rac1-expressing (racET) mice (unpublished
results), tropomodulin-overexpressing (TOT) mice (2 weeks
old),11 and nontransgenic
controls.
Immunoblot analysis was performed as described
previously.5 Briefly, cardiac
tissue was homogenized in a lysis buffer. Tissue homogenate or
supernatant of the homogenate was separated on 10% polyacrylamide gels
by SDS-PAGE and transferred onto polyvinylidene fluoride membrane,
followed by incubation with anti-SLIM1 rabbit antibody
(1:10),12 anti-gelsolin goat
antibody (1:1000; Santa Cruz), anti-B-crystallin rabbit antibody
(1:2000; StressGen), anti-1-antichymotrypsin
monoclonal antibody (1:3000; QED Bioscience), anti-ubiquitin antibody
(1:1000; Zymed), or anti-GAPDH monoclonal antibody (1:3000; Research
Diagnostics).
Protein expression was normalized to GAPDH expression on the
same immunoblot. Briefly, one portion of the immunoblot was incubated
with anti-GAPDH (36 kDa) antibody, whereas the other portion was
incubated with antibody specific for gelsolin (90 kDa),
B-crystallin (21 kDa),
1-antichymotrypsin (70 kDa), or ubiquitin
(8.5 kDa). Immunoblotting for SLIM1 (32 kDa) and GAPDH (36
kDa) was performed sequentially with the same blot. After SLIM1
immunoblot analysis, antibodies were removed from the
membrane.13 The stripped
membrane was then used for anti-GAPDH immunoblotting. Statistical
analysis was performed with Student’s
t
test.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Sensitivity, Reproducibility, and Specificity of cRNA Hybridization
The detection limit of our GeneChip assay was 1.5 to 5 pmol/L, as previously reported.7 To assess reproducibility of the assay, we analyzed hybridization of GAPDH and ß-actin probes on the A-D chips for each failing and nonfailing heart. Three probe sets specific for the 5', middle, and 3' regions of the GAPDH and ß-actin genes are present on each of the A-D chips. Biotin-cRNAs hybridized predominantly to PM oligonucleotides specific for the GAPDH gene (Figure 1A
). By 2-way ANOVA, the difference in GAPDH
hybridization between different hearts was not statistically
significant, and there were no statistically significant differences
between different A-D chips for each sample
(Figure 1D).
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Intensity and staining pattern of ß-actin hybridization
was similar for the 2 nonfailing hearts but reduced in failing hearts
(Figure 1B). Relative to both nonfailing hearts, ß-actin
expression was decreased by 47% and 49% in the ICM1 and DCM1 hearts,
respectively
(Figure 1E;
Table 2). By 2-way ANOVA, ß-actin expression was
significantly different among the 4 hearts
(P<0.001) but not between the
A-D chips from the same heart. By Tukey test, a significant difference
(P<0.05) was identified for
NF1 versus ICM1, NF1 versus DCM1, NF2 versus ICM1, and NF2 versus DCM1
but not for ICM1 versus DCM1 or NF1 versus NF2. These findings are
consistent with previous studies showing ß-actin downregulation in
failing human hearts.14 Our
ß-actin and GAPDH results indicate that the efficiency of cRNA
hybridization to the A-D chips was comparable among the 4 human hearts
assayed.
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Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) is expressed in atria
of normal human hearts and in failing
ventricles.15 16
We showed that cRNA hybridization to the ANF probes was more intense in
both failing hearts than in either of the nonfailing hearts
(Figure 1C and 1F). With GeneChip 3.1 software, ANF was found
to be present in both failing hearts but absent in both nonfailing
hearts
(Table 3). Results of these studies, together with results
for GAPDH and ß-actin expression, are consistent with previous
findings using alternative methodologies.
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The GeneChip system has a reported false-positive rate of
0.1% to 2%.17 To further
reduce the possibility of false-positive results, we included
additional criteria in evaluation of the data. Because the Hu6800
GeneChips represent fewer than 5% of 140 000 genes of the human
genome, the number of detectable genes will be significantly less than
the total number of genes expressed in the heart. Nevertheless, we
could still screen a very large number of human transcripts (5708
cDNAs).
Not all of the known cardiac genes were detected in our
samples. Some probe sets (eg, type-2 ryanodine receptor) were
eliminated from analysis because they did not meet our threshold
criteria for detection, whereas others were excluded because of
cross-hybridization of the probes (eg, - and ß-myosin heavy chain
genes). Several genes (eg, cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+ -ATPase) were not present on the
Hu6800 GeneChips. Hybridization of the labeled-cRNA to oligonucleotides
specific for the L-type Ca2+ channel and
Na+/Ca2+
exchanger did not provide a detectable signal for either the failing or
nonfailing hearts. However, by Northern blot analysis, the 8-kb L-type
Ca2+ channel mRNA and the 6-kb
Na+/Ca2+
exchanger mRNA were identified in the same failing and nonfailing
hearts that were used for the GeneChip assay. Furthermore, relative to
the 18S rRNA, abundance of the L-type Ca2+
channel mRNA decreased, and the
Na+/Ca2+
exchanger mRNA was increased in both failing hearts versus the 2
nonfailing controls
(Figure 2), consistent with previous
reports.8 9
Empirical rules were used by the manufacturer in selection of
oligonucleotides to achieve optimal sensitivity and
specificity.17 However,
individual probes may not perform equally well in hybridization to the
cRNAs.18 Results of our
studies suggest that the sensitivity of the GeneChip assay may not be
comparable for all of the genes on the arrays. However, results of this
Northern blot analysis do demonstrate that transcripts undetected on
the chips are indeed present in our samples.
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Genes Detectable in Both Nonfailing
Hearts
We next determined which genes were expressed in
both NF1 and NF2 hearts. In the present study, a gene with an
"undetectable" signal indicates that cRNA hybridization to the
oligonucleotide probes of the gene did not meet our minimal criteria
for detection. Among 701 to 714 detectable genes in 2 nonfailing
hearts, expression levels of 473 genes were considered not different
between these 2 hearts
(Table
I; see data supplement at
http://www.circulationaha.org).
Although various factors may affect gene expression in different
individuals
(Table 1), coordinated expression of these 473 genes in both
nonfailing hearts suggest that this subset of genes may encode proteins
required for normal physiological function of the heart. We used these
473 genes
(online
Table I) as a baseline to determine altered gene
expression in the 2 failing hearts.
Decreased SLIM1 Expression in Failing
Hearts
Results of our GeneChip studies showed
downregulation of mRNA for SLIM1 in both failing hearts relative to
both nonfailing controls
(Table 2). To validate and extend these results to the
protein level, we also compared expression levels of SLIM1 protein in 4
other nonfailing (NF3 to NF6) and 5 other failing (DCM2 to DCM6) hearts
(Table 1). Relative to the GAPDH control, SLIM1 protein
expression was downregulated 3.7-fold
(P=0.016) in DCM hearts versus
nonfailing controls
(Figure 3A). Thus, expression levels of SLIM1 mRNA and
protein are significantly decreased in failing human hearts. SLIM1 is a
recently identified skeletal muscle LIM protein that comprises 4.5 LIM
domains expressed in the outflow tract of the developing
heart12 and in skeletal
muscle. SLIM1 localizes to focal adhesions, which suggests the protein
may act to regulate cytoskeletal
interactions.19
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Increased Gelsolin Expression in Failing
Hearts
We also demonstrated upregulation of gelsolin mRNA in
both failing hearts
(Table 2). Quantitative immunoblot analysis was also
performed to compare gelsolin protein levels between the nonfailing and
DCM human hearts. We showed a 1.6- to 2.3-fold increase
(P=0.005) in gelsolin protein
in DCM hearts (n=5) relative to nonfailing controls (n=4)
(Figure 3B).
To explore altered gelsolin expression in heart failure
animal models, we performed additional immunoblot analysis in
cardiomyopathic hearts of the racET mice and TOT mice, as well as
nontransgenic controls. Development of dilated cardiomyopathy and heart
failure in the juvenile TOT mice has been described
previously.11 The TOT mouse
hearts showed a 3.0-fold increase in gelsolin expression relative to
the nontransgenic controls
(Figure 3B). Similarly, 3.9-fold and 2.0-fold increases in
gelsolin protein levels were found in hypertrophic and dilated
cardiomyopathic racET mouse hearts, respectively
(Figure 3B). Thus, gelsolin expression is upregulated in
failing human hearts, and these changes are correlated with similar
changes in cardiomyopathic hearts from 2 different lines of transgenic
mice exhibiting cardiac hypertrophy or heart failure
phenotypes.
Altered Expression of 5 Clusters of Genes in
the Failing Hearts
Other genes with increased or decreased expression
levels in the failing human hearts were also identified. Of 14
differentially expressed genes, 12 genes encoding proteins with known
functions are listed in
Table 2. In addition, we identified genes that were only
detectable in both nonfailing hearts and another subset of genes that
were only detectable in both failing hearts
(Table 3). These genes can be categorized into 5 gene
clusters: (1) genes encoding cytoskeletal and contractile proteins,
ie, SLIM1, myomesin MLC2, and ß-actin;
(2) genes encoding proteins responsible for degradation or disassembly
of myocardial proteins, ie, gelsolin,
1-antichymotrypsin, and ubiquitin; (3) genes
encoding proteins involved in metabolism, primarily mitochondrial
proteins, ie, ATP synthase -subunit, SDH Fp, aldose reductase, and
TIM17 preprotein translocase; (4) genes encoding proteins responsible
for protein synthesis, ie, EF-2, eukaryotic initiation factor-4AII, and
transcription factor homologue-HBZ17; and (5) genes encoding stress
proteins, ie, B-crystallin and µ-crystallin.
Consistent with our GeneChip results, we
showed a 5-fold decrease in
1-antichymotrypsin protein
(P=0.007) in 5 other DCM hearts
versus 4 other nonfailing controls
(Figure 3C). Similar to previous studies by 2D gel
electrophoresis,20 we also
showed decreased expression of B-crystallin protein in failing human
hearts
(Table 2;
Figure 3D), as well as a significant increase
(P<0.018) in ubiquitin protein
level in failing hearts
(Figure 3E).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The ICM1 and DCM1 hearts used in this microarray analysis of gene expression were from patients of different age, sex, race, diagnosis, and treatment (Table 1
). However, despite these differences, we were able
to identify similar changes in expression of 12 genes in both failing
hearts, which indicates that these changes may be fundamental to
development and progression of human heart failure
(Table 2). We also identified an additional 5 genes
expressed only in failing hearts, plus 2 genes present only in the
nonfailing hearts
(Table 3). Some of the changes we observed, eg, in ANF,
ß-actin, and B-crystallin, are consistent with previous
studies.14 15 16 20
Our results from the GeneChip assay
(Table 2) are also validated by the results of our Western
blot analyses
(Figure 3).
Both SLIM1 mRNA and protein were downregulated in failing
human hearts
(Table 2;
Figure 3A). Although the precise function of SLIM1
has not been determined, its expression in the outflow tract of the
developing heart and its localization to focal adhesions suggests it
may act in an analogous manner to muscle LIM protein
(MLP).12 19 MLP
serves as a scaffold for interaction between the thin filaments and the
cytoskeleton,21 and MLP
knockout mice develop dilated
cardiomyopathy.22 Both MLP
and SLIM1 contain LIM domains with sequence
similarity.
Gelsolin mRNA was upregulated in the ICM1 and DCM1 hearts
(Table 2), and gelsolin protein was also upregulated in 5
different failing human hearts versus 4 different nonfailing hearts
(Figure 3B). Increased expression of gelsolin was also
identified in 2 different mouse models of heart failure
(Figure 3B). Gelsolin regulates assembly and turnover of thin
filaments in cardiac
myocytes.23 Recent studies
have shown that L-type Ca2+ channel activity
is significantly increased in neonatal myocytes isolated from gelsolin
knockout mouse hearts.24
Thus, increased expression of gelsolin in failing hearts could
contribute to perturbation of thin filament organization and
attenuation of Ca2+-induced
Ca2+ release in failing heart muscle
cells.
In the present study, conservative strategies were used to evaluate the GeneChip data; specifically, a high threshold was set for identification of differentially expressed genes in failing versus nonfailing hearts. Thus, the number of false-negative results is likely to be increased, ie, we may have underestimated the number of genes showing significant differences in expression between failing and nonfailing hearts. Nevertheless, as we have demonstrated by evidence of altered expression of novel genes and their encoded proteins, gene profiling by high-density oligonucleotide arrays represents a useful tool for identification of genes and gene families that may contribute to development and progression of heart failure.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported by NIH grants F32 HL-10139 and T32 HL-07653 (Dr Yang); a postdoctoral fellowship from the American Heart Association, Ohio Valley Affiliate (Dr DiPaola); NIH grants HL-56256 and AG-16613 (Dr Bond); HL-499929 and an American Heart Association Established Investigator Award and Grant-in-Aid (Dr Moravec); NIH grant R29 HL-59224 and an American Heart Association National Grant-in-Aid (Dr Sussman); NHMRC, Australia No. 980865 (Dr Mitchell); and by the Kaufman Center for Heart Failure, Cleveland Clinic Foundation. We thank the Cleveland Clinic Foundation and LifeBanc of Northeast Ohio for providing human tissue.
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Footnotes |
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%Received June 27, 2000; revision received August 9, 2000; accepted August 9, 2000.
Table I of this article can be found in an online data supplement available at http://www.circulationaha.org
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M. H. Yamani, C. S. Masri, N. B. Ratliff, M. Bond, R. C. Starling, E. M. Tuzcu, P. M. McCarthy, and J. B. Young The role of vitronectin receptor ({alpha}v{beta}3) and tissue factor in the pathogenesis of transplant coronary vasculopathy J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., March 6, 2002; 39(5): 804 - 810. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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