(Circulation. 2000;102:55.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Assessment of Myocardial Perfusion by Harmonic Power Doppler Imaging at Rest and During Adenosine Stress
Comparison With 99mTc-Sestamibi SPECT Imaging
From the Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, UT Southwestern and Dallas VA Medical Centers, Dallas, Tex.
Correspondence to Paul A. Grayburn, MD, Division of Cardiology (111A), VA Medical Center, 4500 S Lancaster Rd, Dallas, TX 75216. E-mail grayburn{at}ryburn.swmed.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Harmonic power Doppler imaging (HPDI) is a novel technique for assessing myocardial perfusion by contrast echocardiography in humans. The purpose of this study was to compare myocardial perfusion by HPDI with that obtained by 99mTc-sestamibi single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) during rest and pharmacological stress.
Methods and Results—HPDI was performed on 123 patients who were
referred for SPECT imaging for known or suspected coronary
artery disease. Images were obtained at baseline and during
adenosine infusion (0.14 mg ·
kg-1 ·
min-1x6 minutes) in 3 apical views.
Myocardial perfusion by HPDI was graded for each coronary
territory as absent, patchy, or full. The persistence of absent or
patchy myocardial perfusion by HPDI between rest and adenosine
was interpreted as a fixed defect, whereas any decrease in perfusion
grade was interpreted as a reversible defect. Overall concordance
between HPDI and SPECT was 83 (81%) of 103 for normal versus abnormal
perfusion. Agreement between the 2 methods for each of the 3
coronary territories was 81% (
=0.57) for the left anterior
descending artery, 76% (=0.52) for the right coronary
artery, and 72% (=0.40) for the left circumflex artery.
Discrepancies between the 2 techniques were most notable in the
circumflex territory, where fixed defects were observed in 33% by HPDI
but in only 14% by SPECT (
2=15.8,
P=0.0001).
Conclusions—This study demonstrates that HPDI can reliably detect myocardial perfusion during pharmacological stress, although there was a significantly higher number of falsely abnormal results in the circumflex territory.
Key Words: contrast media • echocardiography • perfusion • stress • tomography • adenosine
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Recently, harmonic power Doppler imaging (HPDI) has emerged as a promising tool to detect myocardial perfusion after intravenous injection of second-generation contrast agents.1 2 3 Initial studies of HPDI have indicated that it can accurately detect resting perfusion abnormalities in patients with a previous myocardial infarction.4 5 6 However, it is well known that resting perfusion may be normal even in the presence of a severe coronary stenosis,7 8 9 a fact that serves as the basis for both exercise and pharmacological stress imaging. Therefore, this study was undertaken to assess the ability of HPDI to identify perfusion abnormalities at rest and during pharmacological stress imaging with adenosine. Results were compared with 99mTc-sestamibi single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging, which has emerged as the clinical reference standard for perfusion imaging.
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Methods |
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Patient Population
The protocol was approved by the Human Studies Subcommittee, and all patients gave written informed consent. A total of 123 patients with suspected or known coronary artery disease who were scheduled for adenosine stress 99mTc-sestamibi SPECT were included in this study if they were >18 years of age and had adequate visualization of the myocardium in the apical views on echocardiography. Exclusion criteria included myocardial infarction within 1 week, unstable angina, second- or third-degree atrioventricular block, wheezing, systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg, ingestion of caffeine within 24 hours or methylxanthine derivatives within 48 hours, pregnancy, or lactation. Myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE) and 99mTc-sestamibi data were acquired at baseline and after intravenous adenosine at 0.14 mg · kg-1 · min-1 over a period of 6 minutes.
Myocardial Contrast Echocardiography
Optison (Molecular Biosystems, Inc) is a second-generation
contrast agent consisting of perfluoropropane-filled albumin
microspheres (mean diameter 3.9 µm, concentration 5 to
8x108/mL).10 11 The safety of
Optison and its lack of adverse effects on
hemodynamics, left ventricular function,
and pulmonary gas exchange have been
demonstrated.10 11 An intravenous infusion of
Optison was given by injecting 3 mL into an extension tubing through a
stopcock placed just proximal to an 18- or 20-gauge
intravenous catheter.12 Since Optison floats
to the surface, the extension tubing was directed upward from the floor
toward the patient’s arm. The plug of Optison in the tubing was pushed
into the intravenous infusion by 0.9% saline at a rate of
50 mL/h at baseline imaging and 2 minutes into the adenosine
infusion for stress imaging. The rate was adjusted upward or downward
as needed to eliminate attenuation artifacts and to maximize the left
ventricular cavity signal without creating a "blooming"
artifact (ie, avoidance of white as opposed to yellow signal in the
left ventricular cavity). The benefits of an
intravenous infusion of microbubbles include the avoidance
of far-field attenuation and blooming artifacts seen with bolus
injections.13 14
HPDI was performed with a broad-band harmonic transducer
(Hewlett-Packard Sonos 5500) transmitting and receiving at a mean
frequency of 1.8 MHz and 3.6 MHz, respectively. The dynamic range of
this system is 40 dB. The mechanical index was set as high as possible
to increase microbubble destruction. A dual-trigger flash mode was used
in which the first ultrasound trigger results in microbubble
destruction followed by an imaging trigger gated to the T wave of the
ECG every fourth cardiac cycle. End-systolic triggering was
used because the myocardial wall segments are thicker and the left
ventricular cavity size smaller, resulting in less contrast
attenuation. In addition, end-systolic dual triggers were
carefully adjusted to avoid cardiac motion between the first and second
triggers. Extending the ultrasound pulse interval over several cardiac
cycles had the advantage of increased time for microbubble
replenishment in the myocardium, thus resulting in improved
detection of myocardial perfusion.15 16 In our experience
with this technique in a pilot study of 20 subjects, triggering
intervals of <4 beats often failed to show myocardial perfusion.
Ultrasound system gains were optimized at the beginning of the study
and held constant for subsequent image acquisitions. Gain settings were
maintained at <70% to avoid a myocardial "blooming" artifact that
could be falsely interpreted as "perfusion." HPDI images were
displayed on a split screen simultaneously with a
destruction phase image to minimize the misinterpretation of artifacts
(Figure 1
). Images were acquired at rest
and during adenosine. Since peak hyperemia begins 3
minutes into the adenosine infusion and lasts up to 30 seconds
afterward,17 image acquisition was initiated 3 minutes
after the start of the infusion. Since only 3.5 minutes of maximal
hyperemia was available for imaging, HPDI was performed only in
the apical views by obtaining 3 to 5 beats gated to every fourth
cardiac cycle. If a myocardial defect was noted, the triggering
interval was increased to every sixth or eighth beat, and the focus was
adjusted to the level of the perfusion defect.
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Single Photon Emission Tomography
All patients received an adenosine infusion at a rate of
0.14 mg · kg-1
· min-1, for a total of
6 minutes. At 3 minutes of infusion, 8 to 10 mCi of
99mTc-sestamibi was injected
intravenously, and adenosine stress images were
acquired 1 hour later. After a 3- to 4-hour interval, patients received
21 to 28 mCi of 99mTc-sestamibi
intravenously, and delayed rest images were acquired 1 hour
after the second (rest) injection. Patients weighing >250 lb were
imaged by means of a 2-day protocol with a
99mTc-sestamibi dose of 30 mCi for each image.
SPECT images were obtained with the use of a triple-head camera
(Toshiba 9300). Data were acquired over 360°, by means of a 64x64
matrix with 60 projections. The acquisition time per projection
was 30 seconds for the low-dose image and 20 to 25 seconds for the
high-dose image. The data were reconstructed with the use of a
Ramp prefilter with a cutoff frequency of 0.20. A Butterworth
filter was applied during back-projection. The reconstructed slices
were displayed into vertical, horizontal, and short-axis planes. All
99mTc-sestamibi images were interpreted by
independent observers blinded to the HPDI results.
Image Interpretation
HPDI was evaluated in blinded fashion by 2 observers (S.H. and
P.G.). Each apical view was divided into 5 segments, and myocardial
perfusion was graded as absent, patchy, or full. During
adenosine-induced hyperemia, persistence of absent or
patchy myocardial opacification was interpreted as a fixed defect
(Figure 2), whereas any decrease in
perfusion grade was interpreted as a reversible defect (Figure 3). HPDI observers were blinded to the
clinical history and SPECT data. HPDI was interpreted independently for
interobserver and intraobserver variability in 59 subjects. Horizontal
and vertical long-axis views by SPECT imaging were interpreted by 2
observers to evaluate the myocardial segments that corresponded most
closely to the echocardiographic segments.
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Statistical Analysis
Concordance between MCE and
99mTc-sestamibi was determined by statistics
with values >0.2=fair, >0.4=moderate, >0.6=substantial, and
>0.8=almost perfect.18 McNemar’s
test19 was used to evaluate differences between HPDI and
SPECT for normal versus abnormal perfusion. A value of
P<0.05 was considered to be significant.
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Results |
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Patient Characteristics
The clinical characteristics of the patients are listed in Table 1
. SPECT imaging was scheduled to
evaluate atypical chest pain in 42% of patients, and 27% were studied
for preoperative risk assessment. Left ventricular
dysfunction (ejection fraction <40%) was present in 15 (12%)
patients. HPDI and SPECT studies were available for comparison in 103
patients. HPDI was not completed in 18 patients because of poor image
quality (n=12), inadequate contrast opacification (n=3), or artifacts
present in >1 view (n=3). In addition, SPECT images were not
completed in 3 patients, 1 of whom also did not complete the HPDI
study.
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Comparison of HPDI and SPECT by Patient
In the 103 patients who underwent successful myocardial perfusion
studies by both HPDI and SPECT, there was concordance for normal versus
abnormal perfusion in 83 (81%) of 103 cases (=0.6). As shown in
Table 2, the concordance was better when
the SPECT images were normal or consistent with multivessel
disease. When SPECT suggested single-vessel involvement, HPDI was only
concordant in 28 (68%) of 41 cases, compared with 28 (93%) of 30 when
SPECT showed evidence of multivessel disease and 27 (84%) of 32 when
SPECT was normal.
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Comparison of HPDI and SPECT by Coronary Territory
Both HPDI and SPECT studies were analyzable in 304
coronary territories. The contingency tables comparing HPDI and
SPECT for the left anterior descending (LAD), right coronary
artery (RCA), and left circumflex (LCx) territories are shown in Figure 4. Concordance between the 2 techniques
for normal versus abnormal myocardial perfusion was 81% (=0.57) in
the LAD territory, 76% in the RCA territory (=0.52), and 72% in
the LCx territory (=0.40). Overall agreement was present in 232
(76%) of 304 territories. When HPDI and SPECT were compared for
agreement between normal perfusion versus reversible defects versus
fixed defects, concordance was 74% for the LAD, 64% for the RCA, and
64% for the LCx. There were no significant differences between HPDI
and SPECT for the LAD and RCA territories, respectively. In contrast,
fixed defects were present in the LCx territory in 33% of patients
by HPDI compared with only 14% by SPECT
(2=15.8, P=0.0001).
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Comparison by Myocardial Segments
Of 1329 myocardial segments, 1125 (85%) were adequately
visualized by HPDI, with concordance in 786 (70%) (=0.32). The
highest concordance (82%) was obtained in the mid-anteroseptal
segment, with the lowest concordance in the basal lateral (51%) and
basal posterolateral (59%) segments. It is the lack of concordance in
the lateral segments that accounted for the difference described
between HPDI and SPECT in the LCx territory.
Interobserver and Intraobserver Variability
The interobserver agreement was 97% (=0.93) for identifying
normal versus abnormal perfusion and 77% (=0.57) for reversible
versus fixed defects. The intraobserver variability was 93% and 89%
for the 2 observers. The time period between interobserver and
intraobserver interpretations ranged from 1 to 6 months.
Correlation to Coronary Angiography
Coronary angiography done within 3 months of the HPDI
study and without intervening revascularization was
only available in 15 patients. With regard to the presence of
single-vessel versus multivessel versus normal, both SPECT and HPDI
were concordant to angiography in 9 (60%) of 15 and to each other in
13 (87%) of 15 cases (Table 3).
Angiographic comparisons were not available in the majority of patients
in whom HPDI and SPECT were discordant.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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This study demonstrates that HPDI with the use of an intravenous contrast agent can detect myocardial perfusion at rest and during pharmacological stress. HPDI and SPECT were not significantly different for the LAD and RCA territories; however, fixed defects in the LCx were commonly seen by HPDI despite normal perfusion by SPECT. The major strength of this study is its large size, prospective data collection, and simultaneous acquisition of SPECT and MCE images during a single adenosine infusion.
Mechanism of Perfusion Detection by HPDI
HPDI, like conventional Doppler velocity imaging, transmits a
packet of ultrasound pulses along each scan line, with the use of an
autocorrelator to compare differences in the received
signals.20 Conventional Doppler displays the frequency
shift of the received signals (a marker of velocity); HPDI displays the
amplitude of the received signals, which reflects the number of
scatterers. The use of a packet of ultrasound pulses offers 2 major
advantages over B-mode imaging. First, it increases the sensitivity of
HPDI and allows for removal of the tissue harmonic signal with a wall
filter, albeit at a cost of a lower frame rate. Second, a packet of
ultrasound pulses increases microbubble destruction, paradoxically
enabling HPDI to detect perfusion.20 Because flow velocity
in the myocardial capillaries is extremely low (<1
mm/s),15 Doppler velocity mapping is not capable of
detecting perfusion. However, the destruction of microbubbles from one
packet to the next is detected by the HPDI autocorrelator. Thus, the
signal displayed by HPDI reflects myocardial perfusion in that
microbubbles must be present in the myocardial capillary bed and
must undergo destruction between pulses to be detected.
Two mechanisms have been proposed for the detection of myocardial perfusion by HPDI. One has been termed "stimulated acoustic emissions" and postulates that microbubble destruction produces an acoustic energy that results in an HPDI signal.2 A second, more likely explanation is that microbubble destruction results in a decrease in backscattered intensity and a change in phase between pulses; the autocorrelator interprets this as motion and therefore displays a signal. In either case, microbubble destruction is necessary for HPDI to detect myocardial perfusion.
Since microbubble destruction is dependent on multiple variables, it is crucial that these be optimized during HPDI. Microbubbles have different sensitivity to ultrasonic destruction, depending on the thickness and composition of their shells. We used Optison, which is sensitive to microbubble destruction at diagnostic ultrasound frequencies.21 Microbubble destruction is directly related to acoustic power and inversely related to transducer frequency.21 22 Therefore, we always used maximal acoustic power, and the mechanical index was >1.0 in every patient, well above the threshold for maximal microbubble destruction by HPDI.20 Importantly, mechanical index varies with focus, sector width, and depth and is not uniform throughout the ultrasound field. This nonuniformity means that microbubble destruction will be greater in some parts of the sector (apex) than in others (lateral wall), a fact that may explain why the lateral segments had a higher false-positive rate in this study. We have found that by adjusting the transducer position laterally to move the lateral wall toward the center of the sector helps eliminate this artifact. However, this is not possible in all patients. Newer advances in transducer design, including lower frequencies and smaller apertures, are being developed to help overcome the problem of false-positive defects in the lateral wall.
Previous studies of HPDI used a low pulse repetition frequency.5 6 This increases the time between pulses in a packet and therefore improves sensitivity by increasing the time for changes in the bubbles (ie, dissolution) to occur. However, it also increases the likelihood that cardiac motion will produce an artifactual color signal. We avoided this problem by using a high pulse repetition frequency and a dual screen that displayed 2 sequential frames side by side.23 This allowed us to verify that no significant cardiac motion occurred between frames and that microbubble destruction was near complete. It also enabled us to increase the gain settings to the highest level possible without introducing an HPDI color signal on the destruction image (second frame). This is critical because high gain settings can introduce artifact and low gain settings may create a false-positive perfusion defect.
The focus setting also plays a major role in HPDI because it affects bubble destruction. For example, we commonly encountered perfusion "defects" in the apex that resolved when the focus was moved from base to apex. Had we not done this systematically, we might have had a high rate of false-positive defects in the apex. Lengthening the triggering interval, as done in this study, is also helpful in avoiding false-positive perfusion defects.
Study Limitations
There is no perfect reference standard for regional myocardial
perfusion because radiolabeled microspheres are not suitable
for human studies. Coronary angiography does not evaluate
myocardial perfusion and therefore is a poor reference standard for
HPDI. For example, myocardial perfusion as the result of collaterals
may be present despite coronary artery
occlusion,24 and there may be absence of perfusion despite
a widely patent coronary artery (no reflow
phenomenon).25 Therefore, we chose to compare HPDI with
SPECT imaging, which is the most widely used clinical test for
assessing myocardial perfusion.
We used qualitative analysis of the HPDI and SPECT images as is used in routine clinical practice to distinguish normal, reversible, and fixed defects. Digital acquisition of HPDI should lend itself to quantitative analysis, which may be more accurate in distinguishing normal perfusion from mild defects. Moreover, quantitative analysis offers the potential to actually measure flow reserve ratio noninvasively. Unfortunately, quantification of the digital HPDI signal is not yet available on the instrument used in this study. We did not use off-line quantification of videotape because it is not readily applied to clinical practice because of time constraints, and it has potential for loss of data quality and errors in extrapolating signal intensity from the color bar to the myocardial regions.
These data demonstrate that HPDI can identify normal versus abnormal perfusion with the use of current technology. However, distinguishing normal from a fixed or reversible defect by HPDI shows only a modest correlation with SPECT imaging and greater interobserver variability. This finding may be explained in part by differences in the 2 techniques. SPECT requires both perfusion and cellular viability for radionuclide uptake, whereas HPDI is strictly dependent on microvascular integrity. HPDI has an axial resolution superior to that of SPECT (1 mm versus 1 cm). Furthermore, the classification of defects as fixed or reversible is not an all-or-none phenomenon. Often, defects may be predominantly fixed with some reversibility at the edges. This can result in a classification difference between SPECT and HPDI. The evolution of quantitative techniques may allow more precise classification of fixed versus reversible defects.
Finally, the short duration of action of adenosine may have limited our technique. A longer infusion or the use of high-dose dipyridamole may have enabled us to use off-axis views and to systematically vary the triggering intervals, which in turn may have led to even better concordance with SPECT imaging. In addition, adenosine caused side effects in 99 (80%) of 123 patients, including dyspnea, flushing, chest pain, headache, and lightheadedness.
Conclusions
HPDI is a promising new technique for contrast
echocardiographic assessment of myocardial perfusion at
rest and during pharmacological stress. False-positive perfusion
abnormalities are common in the lateral wall with the use of current
HPDI technology. Future advances in instrumentation and quantitative
analysis should further improve the accuracy of this method for
the noninvasive clinical assessment of myocardial perfusion.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant 1-K24-HL-03980-01 (Dr Grayburn).
Received October 14, 1999; revision received January 21, 2000; accepted February 2, 2000.
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A Hagendorff, A Werner, D Pfeiffer, and H Becher Estimation of vasodilator response by analysis of Doppler intensity kinetics with myocardial contrast echocardiography using an intravenous standardized bolus administration Eur J Echocardiogr, August 1, 2004; 5(4): 272 - 283. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Yano, H. Ito, K. Iwakura, R. Kimura, K. Tanaka, A. Okamura, S. Kawano, T. Masuyama, and K. Fujii Myocardial contrast echocardiography with a new calibration method can estimate myocardial viabilityin patients with myocardial infarction J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., May 19, 2004; 43(10): 1799 - 1806. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. H. C. Yu, D. M. Skyba, H. Leong-Poi, C. Sloggett, M. Jamorski, R. Garg, R. M. Iwanochko, and S. C. Siu Incremental value of parametric quantitative assessment of myocardial perfusion by triggered Low-Power myocardial contrast echocardiography J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., May 19, 2004; 43(10): 1807 - 1813. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A Hagendorff, A Goeckritz, D Pfeiffer, and H Becher Myocardial contrast echocardiography demonstrates myocardial hypoperfusion in the LAD territory in patients with acute chest pain at rest--a prospective study using power Doppler harmonic imaging with intravenous bolus application Eur J Echocardiogr, March 1, 2004; 5(2): 132 - 141. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Peltier, D. Vancraeynest, A. Pasquet, T. Ay, V. Roelants, A.-M. D'hondt, J. A. Melin, and J.-L. J. Vanoverschelde Assessment of the physiologic significance of coronary disease with dipyridamole real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography: Comparison with technetium-99m sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography and quantitative coronary angiography J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., January 21, 2004; 43(2): 257 - 264. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Rovai Myocardial contrast echocardiography: advantages of quantitative analysis Eur J Echocardiogr, January 1, 2004; 5(1): 2 - 4. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A Hagendorff, A Goeckritz, A Neugebauer, T Rother, T Linke, D Pfeiffer, and H Becher Assessment of Regional Myocardial Hypoperfusion with Myocardial Contrast Echocardiography Using Intravenous Bolus Application in Patients with Acute Chest Pain: A Double Case Report Eur J Echocardiogr, December 1, 2003; 4(4): 320 - 326. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Takagi, K. Ohmori, K. Yukiiri, I. Kondo, Y. Yu, A. Oshita, H. Takeuchi, K. Mizushige, and M. Kohno Quantitative assessment of coronary stenosis by harmonic power Doppler with a simple pulsing sequence and vasodilator stress in patients J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., June 4, 2003; 41(11): 2060 - 2067. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. J Stewart CONTRAST ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY Heart, March 1, 2003; 89(3): 342 - 348. [Full Text] [PDF]
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T Muro, T Hozumi, H Watanabe, H Yamagishi, M Yoshiyama, K Takeuchi, and J Yoshikawa Assessment of myocardial perfusion abnormalities by intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography with harmonic power Doppler imaging: comparison with positron emission tomography Heart, February 1, 2003; 89(2): 145 - 149. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S Fukuda, T Muro, T Hozumi, H Watanabe, K Shimada, M Yoshiyama, K Takeuchi, and J Yoshikawa Changes in transmural distribution of myocardial perfusion assessed by quantitative intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography in humans Heart, October 1, 2002; 88(4): 368 - 372. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.-P. Bin, R. A. Pelberg, K. Wei, D. E. Le, N. C. Goodman, and S. Kaul Dobutamine versus dipyridamole for inducing reversible perfusion defects in chronic multivessel coronary artery stenosis J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., July 3, 2002; 40(1): 167 - 174. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Miyagawa, Y. Sawa, S. Taketani, N. Kawaguchi, T. Nakamura, N. Matsuura, and H. Matsuda Myocardial Regeneration Therapy for Heart Failure: Hepatocyte Growth Factor Enhances the Effect of Cellular Cardiomyoplasty Circulation, May 28, 2002; 105(21): 2556 - 2561. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Asanuma, K. Viggen, J. B. Seward, and M. Belohlavek Dual-Spectra Ultrasonography: An Attenuation-Compensating Technique for Myocardial Perfusion Analysis J. Ultrasound Med., March 1, 2002; 21(3): 249 - 259. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Becher, K. Tiemann, S. Kuntz-Hehner, H. Omran, and T. Schlosser Diagnostic impact of contrast echocardiography for assessment of left ventricular function and myocardial perfusion in patients with coronary artery disease Eur. Heart J. Suppl., March 1, 2002; 4(suppl_C): C12 - C21. [Abstract] [PDF]
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L. Agati, S. Funaro, M. Madonna, C. Volponi, G. Veneroso, and G. Tonti Clinical utility of contrast echocardiography in the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction Eur. Heart J. Suppl., March 1, 2002; 4(suppl_C): C27 - C34. [Abstract] [PDF]
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