(Circulation. 2000;101:200.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Effect of Verapamil on Long-Term Tachycardia-Induced Atrial Electrical Remodeling
From Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital, National Yang-Ming University (S.-H.L., J.-J.C., C.-R.H.), and Veterans General Hospital-Taipei (W.-C.Y., Y.-A.D., M.-S.C., S.-A.C.), Taiwan.
Correspondence to Shih-Ann Chen, MD, Division of Cardiology, Veterans General Hospital-Taipei, 201 Sec. 2, Shih-Pai Road, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC. E-mail sachen{at}vghtpe.gov.tw
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Abstract |
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Background—The effect of verapamil on long-term tachycardia-induced atrial electrical remodeling has not been reported.
Methods and Results—Forty-eight dogs were randomly divided into verapamil and control groups. The dogs in the verapamil group received verapamil 120 mg every day, those in the control group did not receive verapamil. Atrial effective refractory period (AERP), inducibility of atrial fibrillation (AF), and duration of AF were assessed before and after complete atrioventricular junction ablation with 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week rapid atrial pacing (780 bpm). AERP shortening, AERP dispersion, AERP maladaptation, and inducibility of AF after 1-day pacing was significantly attenuated by verapamil. However, verapamil did not have any significant effect on these parameters in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week pacing. Verapamil did not have any significant effect on the conduction velocity in the dogs with 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week pacing. Before rapid atrial pacing, verapamil significantly prolonged the duration of AF. In the dogs with 1-day pacing, the duration of AF measured immediately after termination of pacing was similar between the control and verapamil groups. However, in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week pacing, the duration of AF after pacing was significantly longer in the verapamil group.
Conclusions—Verapamil cannot prevent long-term (1 and 6 weeks, respectively) tachycardia-induced changes of atrial electrophysiological properties. Furthermore, verapamil increases the duration of AF in the dogs either before or after long-term rapid atrial pacing.
Key Words: tachycardia • electrophysiology • atrium
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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It has recently been demonstrated that prolonged episodes of atrial fibrillation (AF) induced shortening, maladaptation, and increased dispersion of atrial effective refractory period (AERP).1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 This effect results in shorter wavelengths for the multiple wavelets during AF.9 10 11 Some studies have demonstrated that verapamil could attenuate short-term (
24 hours) tachycardia-induced shortening and
maladaptation of AERP and reduce the inducibility of
AF.4 5 12 However, the effect of verapamil on
long-term tachycardia-induced atrial electrical remodeling
has not been reported. The purpose of this study was to assess the
effect of verapamil on long-term
tachycardia-induced atrial electrical remodeling. |
Methods |
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Experimental Preparation
As described previously, all experiments were performed in accordance with the Guidelines for Animal Research in this institute.13 14 Forty-eight mongrel dogs of either sex weighing 20 to 25 kg were randomly divided into 2 groups, with 3 subgroups in each. The dogs in the verapamil group were fed with slow-releasing verapamil (Knoll) 120 mg every day starting 2 weeks before the baseline study. The dogs in the control group did not receive verapamil. The administration of oral verapamil in the verapamil group was continued to the end of this study.
All dogs were anesthetized with an intravenous
injection of thiopentone sodium, 25 mg/kg, and the chest was opened
through the right fifth intercostal space. A quadripolar electrode
catheter (Mansfield, Boston Scientific) was inserted through left
femoral vein and positioned in right atrium to record an atrial
electrogram. An electrode array containing 2 electrodes (electrode
diameter, 1.5 mm; interelectrode distance, 2 cm) was sutured to
the area between the Bachmann’s bundle and right atrium for measuring
intra-atrial conduction velocity (Figure 1
). During measurements of conduction
velocity, we paced from the electrode positioned near right atrium
appendage at a pacing cycle length of 350 ms for 30 s. The
conduction velocity was calculated from the conduction time
recorded at the electrode positioned near Bachmann’s bundle. Seven
bipolar pacing wires for measuring AERP were sutured to the right and
left atria.
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Baseline Electrophysiological Study
Each dog was pretreated with atropine and
propranolol (0.04 and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively) followed by
maintenance infusion (0.007 and 0.04 mg ·
kg-1 · h-1,
respectively).15 In the verapamil group, the
dogs received verapamil (0.3 mg ·
kg-1 · h-1) during
the experimental period, and the dogs in the control group received a
matching saline infusion.5 12 AERP was measured by a
decremental technique with 2-ms steps at pacing cycle lengths of 200 ms
(PCL 200), 250 ms (PCL 250), and 350 ms (PCL 350) for 8 beats. AERP was
defined as the longest S1-S2 coupling interval that failed to result in
atrial capture. Basic pacing and extrastimulus were performed at twice
diastolic threshold. The baseline ERP was determined 3
times and averaged. If AF occurred during AERP testing, it was
cardioverted, and the dog was allowed to rest for 10 minutes. Then
incremental S1S2 from below
the ERP were used. Dispersion of AERP was defined as the longest minus
the shortest AERP at the same PCL of an individual
heart.13 16 Maladaptation of AERP was considered to be
present if AERP failed to adapt or adapted reversely to change in
heart rate.2 13 17 18
AF was defined as a rapid, irregular atrial rhythm with varying atrial electrogram morphology. The inducibility of AF was assessed by premature atrial stimulation during AERP testing. The duration of AF was assessed using atrial burst pacing with 50-HZ, 2-ms stimuli at 3 times the threshold current. If induced AF persisted >20 minutes, electrical cardioversion was performed and duration of AF was treated as 20 minutes in the calculation. To estimate mean AF duration, AF was induced 5 times for AF duration <10 minutes and twice for AF duration between 10 and 20 minutes. If AF lasted >20 minutes, no further AF induction was attempted.
Electrophysiologic Study After Rapid Atrial Pacing
After baseline electrophysiological
study, complete atrioventricular (AV) block was
performed by radiofrequency ablation with a temperature control
ablation catheter through the right femoral vein. In the 48 dogs used
for this study, mean number of radiofrequency pulses required to create
complete AV block was 3±2 (range, 1 to 7). Late recovery of AV nodal
conduction did not occur in these dogs. After complete AV block was
created by radiofrequency ablation, one unipolar epicardial pacing lead
(Capsure, 4965, Medtronic) was sutured to right ventricular
apex and connected to a programmable VVI pacemaker (Prevail 8086,
Medtronic) in a subcutaneous pocket and set at 80 pulses per
minute.3 13 One unipolar epicardial pacing lead (Capsure,
4965, Medtronic) was sutured to right atrium (Figure 1
); the
lead was then connected to a pulse generator (Itrel 7425, Medtronic)
implanted in a subcutaneous pocket and programmed to pace the atrium at
780 bpm with 2-ms pulses at 3 times threshold current. Atrial capture
rates immediately after pacemaker implantation were 449±52 (range, 407
to 513) bpm. Then the atrial pacemaker was turned off. Seven pacing
wires were tunneled subcutaneously to the right chest. After all the
incisions were closed in layers, dogs were returned to animal quarters.
One week later, the atrial pacemaker was started for both the control
and verapamil groups. The surface EKG was checked every day
to ensure constant pacing.
After 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week rapid atrial pacing, anesthesia was induced with thiopentone sodium (25 mg/kg) and homeostatic sheaths were inserted into right jugular vein and left femoral artery. A quadripolar electrode catheter was inserted though right jugular vein and positioned in right atrium to record an atrial electrogram. After intubation and mechanical ventilation, each dog was treated with atropine and propranolol (0.04 and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively) followed by a maintenance infusion (0.007 and 0.04 mg · kg-1 · h-1, respectively). In the verapamil group, the dogs received verapamil (0.3 mg · kg-1 · h-1) during the experimental period, and the dogs in the control group received a matching saline infusion. Epicardial pacing wires used in the baseline study were exposed for AERP measurements. AERP was measured immediately and every 4 hours after termination of rapid atrial pacing, until the AERP returned within 4 ms of the baseline AERP. The inducibility and duration of AF were assessed using the same methods described in the baseline electrophysiological study. Surface ECG, temperature, blood pressure, arterial blood gas, sugar, and electrolyte levels were continuously monitored.
Statistical Analysis
All continuous variables were expressed as mean±SD. To
evaluate differences between groups, 
2 test
with Yates’ correction or Fisher’s exact test was used to assess
nonparametric data, and a Student’s t test or
Wilcoxon signed rank test was used for continuous
variables. Time series were analyzed by a 2-way repeated
measured ANOVA with Student-Newman-Keuls test. P<0.05 was
considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Because values obtained with PCL 200, 250, and 350 ms showed similar statistical trend in all the atrial electrophysiological properties, only results obtained with the PCL 250 ms are presented.
Shortening of AERP After Pacing
In the control groups, AERP shortened significantly after
termination of 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week rapid atrial pacing (Figure 2). The dogs with 6-week pacing
showed the most significant shortening of AERP and it persisted for 24
hours. In the dogs with 1-day pacing, verapamil could
prevent shortening of AERP, whereas, verapamil could not
prevent shortening of AERP in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week
pacing.
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Dispersion of AERP After Pacing
In the control groups, AERP dispersion increased significantly
after termination of 1-day, 1-week, and 6-week rapid atrial pacing
(Figure 3). The dogs with 6-week pacing
showed the most significant increase of AERP dispersion and it
persisted for 16 hours. In the dogs with 1-day pacing,
verapamil could prevent the increase of AERP dispersion,
whereas, verapamil could not prevent the increase of AERP
dispersion in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week pacing.
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Maladaptation of AERP After Pacing
In the control groups, incidence of AERP maladaptation increased
significantly after termination of 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week rapid
atrial pacing (Figure 4). The dogs with
6-week pacing showed the most significant increase in the incidence of
AERP maladaptation and it persisted for 20 hours. In the dogs with
1-day pacing, verapamil could prevent the increased
incidence of AERP maladaptation, whereas, verapamil could
not prevent the increased incidence of AERP maladaptation in the dogs
with 1-week or 6-week pacing.
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Conduction Velocity After Pacing
In the control dogs with 1-day or 1-week pacing, conduction
velocity was similar to that before pacing (Figure 5). However, in the dogs with 6-week
pacing, conduction velocity after pacing was significantly slower than
that before pacing (P<0.01). In the dogs with 1-day,
1-week, or 6-week pacing, verapamil could not change
conduction velocity significantly. Furthermore, in the dogs with 6-week
pacing, the slower conduction velocity did not recover during the
32-hour follow-up in the control or verapamil group.
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Inducibility of AF After Pacing
In the control groups, inducibility of AF increased significantly
after termination of 1-day, 1-week, or 6-week rapid atrial pacing
(Figure 6). The dogs with 6-week pacing
showed the most significant increase in the inducibility of AF and it
persisted for 24 hours. In the dogs with 1-day pacing,
verapamil could prevent the increased inducibility of AF,
whereas, verapamil could not prevent the increased
inducibility of AF in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week pacing.
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Duration of AF After Pacing
The duration of AF before pacing in the 3 verapamil
subgroups was significantly longer than that in the control subgroups
(Figure 7). In the dogs with 1-day
pacing, the duration of AF measured immediately after termination of
pacing was similar between the control and verapamil
groups. However, in the dogs with 1-week or 6-week pacing, the duration
of AF after pacing was significantly longer in the
verapamil group.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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This study demonstrated that verapamil could not prevent long-term (1 and 6 weeks, respectively) tachycardia-induced changes of atrial electrophysiological properties, including shortening of AERP, increased dispersion and maladaptation of AERP, slower conduction velocity, and increased inducibility of AF. Furthermore, verapamil increased the duration of AF in the dogs either before or after long-term rapid atrial pacing.
Effect of Verapamil on AERP
Goette et al demonstrated that 7 hours of pacing at 800 bpm in
dogs significantly shortened the AERP by 12%, and that dogs
pretreated with verapamil could prevent the AERP shortening
induced by rapid pacing.4 Tieleman et al found that
shortening of goat AERP induced by 24-hour maintenance of AF
was significantly attenuated by verapamil.5
Daoud et al demonstrated that in humans pretreatment with
verapamil markedly attenuated short-duration (5.6±3.9
minutes) AF-induced AERP shortening.12 Consistent
with these studies, the present study showed that
verapamil attenuated the AERP shortening induced by 1-day
rapid atrial pacing. However, verapamil did not attenuate
the AERP shortening induced by long-term (
1 week) rapid atrial
pacing.
Animal studies have shown that AF is based on multiple wavelet reentry.19 During AF, many independent wavelets might propagate in an ever-changing pattern around continuously shifting areas of conduction block. Dispersion of refractoriness was considered to favor induction and maintenance of reentrant arrhythmias.20 21 The present study first showed that verapamil attenuated the AERP dispersion induced by 1-day rapid atrial pacing; however, verapamil did not attenuate the AERP dispersion induced by long-term rapid atrial pacing.
Attuel et al found that maladaptation of AERP might be a marker of atrial pathology causing a propensity to AF.17 Le Heuzey et al measured the effect of heart rate on action potential recorded from isolated strips of human atrial myocardium, and they suggested that maladaptation of AERP might be the cause of AF in humans.18 However, Wijffels et al demonstrated that maladaptation of AERP was actually a consequence of AF in the goat model.2 Tieleman et al showed that verapamil significantly attenuated the maladaptation of AERP induced by 24-hour maintenance of AF.5 We first demonstrated that pretreatment with verapamil could not prevent long-term tachycardia-induced maladaptation of AERP.
Effect of Verapamil on Conduction Velocity
Depression of atrial conduction in the dogs with 6-week rapid
atrial pacing could be related to the structural abnormalities
documented by light and electron microscopy.1 22 A recent
study showed significant changes of connexin expression in goats with
AF-induced remodeling; this finding suggested a potential role for
intercellular coupling changes in altering conduction
velocity.23 Gaspo et al also demonstrated that atrial
myocytes of rapidly paced dogs had reduced INa,
possibly accounting for changes of conduction velocity.24
However, studies about the atrial conduction properties were not
consistent. Wijffels et al showed no change of atrial
conduction velocity in goat model; Elvan et al, Gaspo et al, and the
present study showed decrease of conduction velocity in chronic dog
model.2 3 7 These divergent results might be due to the
different duration of rapid pacing or fibrillation; the duration of
pacing in Elvan’s, Gaspo’s and the present studies was longer
than that of Wijffels’. The depressed conduction properties after
6-week rapid atrial pacing did not show evidence of recovery during the
32-hour follow-up. It might be an irreversible change, but we could not
rule out a late recovery. Furthermore, the present study showed
that verapamil did not have any significant effect on the
conduction velocity either before or after rapid atrial pacing.
Effect of Verapamil on Inducibility and Duration
of AF
The shortening of AERP and depressed atrial conduction properties
could lead to a shorter wavelength and increase the inducibility and
duration of AF.9 10 11 Consistent with Wijiffel’s
study, we found that verapamil attenuated 1-day
tachycardia-induced AERP shortening and reduced the
inducibility of AF.5 However, verapamil did
not reduce the inducibility of AF after long-term rapid atrial
pacing.
Although verapamil attenuated the shortening of AERP induced by 1-day rapid atrial pacing, the duration of AF measured immediately after rapid atrial pacing was similar between the control and verapamil groups. Furthermore, verapamil increased the duration of AF either before or after long-term rapid atrial pacing. An increase in the duration of electrically induced episodes of AF by verapamil has been reported. Shenasa et al showed that both intravenously and orally administrated verapamil increased the duration of electrically induced AF, especially in patients with spontaneous paroxysmal AF.25 Isomoto et al also reported that the duration of AF was increased after intravenous verapamil in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.26 Previous studies have shown that verapamil has no significant effect on AERP.26 27 28 The effect of verapamil on conduction velocity was controversial. Kumagai et al reported that verapamil increased intra-atrial conduction delay and fragmented atrial activity in patients with paroxysmal AF; this effect of verapamil would favor the maintenance of electrically induced AF.28 However, Tieleman et al did not find any significant change in the conduction velocity at the Bachmann’s bundle after verapamil administration in the goat model.5 The present study showed a similar result.
Study Limitations
First, only 7 pairs of electrodes were used in this study; a
detailed atrial mapping using computerized multielectrode mapping is
absent. However, this study still could provide clear concept about the
effect of verapamil on AERP, conduction velocity, and AF.
Second, although previous studies and this laboratory also showed that
anisotropy, conduction velocities in different directions, and
different atrial structures are relevant to occurrence of AF, these
issues are beyond the scope of this study.29 30 31 Third,
whether the decrease in conduction velocity was related to structural
changes in the geometry of the atrium needs further study. Fourth,
secondary AF induced during measurements might affect recovery course
of tachycardia-induced changes of atrial
electrophysiological properties. Fifth,
this study clearly showed that there were differences between the
effects of verapamil on short-duration and long-term
tachycardia-induced changes of atrial
electrophysiological properties. However,
mechanisms leading to the differences and extrapolation to human AF
need further study.
Clinical Implications
Verapamil is widely used for control of
ventricular rate of AF. However, verapamil has
no significant effect on the conversion of AF or maintenance of
sinus rhythm.25 32 33 The present study shows that if
AF lasts for >1 week, verapamil cannot prevent the changes
of atrial electrophysiological properties.
Furthermore, verapamil may have a potential effect to
increase the duration of AF, even when verapamil is
initiated before onset of AF.
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Acknowledgments |
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Supported in part by grants from the National Science Council (NSC88-2314-B-010-094 and 88-2314-B-341-002), Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital (SKH-8302-86-0126-01), and Veterans General Hospital-Taipei (VGH-47 and VGH-301).
Received April 27, 1999; revision received July 12, 1999; accepted July 28, 1999.
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 A. Shiroshita-Takeshita, G. Schram, J. Lavoie, and S. Nattel Effect of Simvastatin and Antioxidant Vitamins on Atrial Fibrillation Promotion by Atrial-Tachycardia Remodeling in Dogs Circulation, October 19, 2004; 110(16): 2313 - 2319. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. M. Park, C.-C. Chou, P. C. Drury, Y. Okuyama, A. Peter, A. Hamabe, Y. Miyauchi, R. M. Kass, H. S. Karagueuzian, M. C. Fishbein, et al. Thoracic vein ablation terminates chronic atrial fibrillation in dogs Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, June 1, 2004; 286(6): H2072 - H2077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C-J A Lindholm, O Fredholm, S-J Moller, N Edvardsson, T Kronvall, T Pettersson, V Firsovaite, A Roijer, C J Meurling, P G Platonov, et al. Sinus rhythm maintenance following DC cardioversion of atrial fibrillation is not improved by temporary precardioversion treatment with oral verapamil Heart, May 1, 2004; 90(5): 534 - 538. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. De Simone, M. De Pasquale, C. De Matteis, M. Canciello, M. Manzo, L. Sabino, F. Alfano, M. Di Mauro, A. Campana, G. De Fabrizio, et al. VErapamil Plus Antiarrhythmic drugs Reduce Atrial Fibrillation recurrences after an electrical cardioversion (VEPARAF Study) Eur. Heart J., August 1, 2003; 24(15): 1425 - 1429. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. Kumagai, H. Nakashima, H. Urata, N. Gondo, K. Arakawa, and K. Saku Effects of angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist on electrical and structural remodeling in atrial fibrillation J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., June 18, 2003; 41(12): 2197 - 2204. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Shinagawa, A. Shiroshita-Takeshita, G. Schram, and S. Nattel Effects of Antiarrhythmic Drugs on Fibrillation in the Remodeled Atrium: Insights Into the Mechanism of the Superior Efficacy of Amiodarone Circulation, March 18, 2003; 107(10): 1440 - 1446. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. F Bosch and S. Nattel Cellular electrophysiology of atrial fibrillation Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2002; 54(2): 259 - 269. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Shimizu and O. A. Centurion Electrophysiological properties of the human atrium in atrial fibrillation Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2002; 54(2): 302 - 314. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Nattel Therapeutic implications of atrial fibrillation mechanisms: can mechanistic insights be used to improve AF management? Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2002; 54(2): 347 - 360. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Shinagawa, H. Mitamura, S. Ogawa, and S. Nattel Effects of inhibiting Na+/H+-exchange or angiotensin converting enzyme on atrial tachycardia-induced remodeling Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2002; 54(2): 438 - 446. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Kurita, H. Mitamura, A. Shiroshita-Takeshita, A. Yamane, M. Ieda, O. Kinebuchi, T. Sato, S. Miyoshi, M. Hara, S. Takatsuki, et al. Daily oral verapamil before but not after rapid atrial excitation prevents electrical remodeling Cardiovasc Res, May 1, 2002; 54(2): 447 - 455. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. L.J.L. Thijssen, J. Ausma, and M. Borgers Structural remodelling during chronic atrial fibrillation: act of programmed cell survival Cardiovasc Res, October 1, 2001; 52(1): 14 - 24. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. BERTAGLIA, D. D'ESTE, A. ZANOCCO, F. ZERBO, and P. PASCOTTO Effects of pretreatment with verapamil on early recurrences after electrical cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation: a randomised study Heart, May 1, 2001; 85(5): 578 - 580. [Full Text]
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M. Vitadello, J. Ausma, M. Borgers, A. Gambino, D. C. Casarotto, and L. Gorza Increased Myocardial GRP94 Amounts During Sustained Atrial Fibrillation : A Protective Response? Circulation, May 1, 2001; 103(17): 2201 - 2206. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C Pandozi and M Santini Update on atrial remodelling owing to rate. Does atrial fibrillation always 'beget' atrial fibrillation? Eur. Heart J., April 1, 2001; 22(7): 541 - 553. [PDF]
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H. Ramanna, A. Elvan, F. H. M. Wittkampf, J. M. T. de Bakker, R. N. W. Hauer, and E. O. Robles de Medina Increased dispersion and shortened refractoriness caused by verapamil in chronic atrial fibrillation J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., April 1, 2001; 37(5): 1403 - 1407. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Benardeau, S. Fareh, and S. Nattel Effects of verapamil on atrial fibrillation and its electrophysiological determinants in dogs Cardiovasc Res, April 1, 2001; 50(1): 85 - 96. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Fareh, A. Benardeau, and S. Nattel Differential efficacy of L- and T-type calcium channel blockers in preventing tachycardia-induced atrial remodeling in dogs Cardiovasc Res, March 1, 2001; 49(4): 762 - 770. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Nattel and D. Li Ionic Remodeling in the Heart : Pathophysiological Significance and New Therapeutic Opportunities for Atrial Fibrillation Circ. Res., September 15, 2000; 87(6): 440 - 447. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. G. Manios, E. M. Kanoupakis, G. I. Chlouverakis, M. D. Kaleboubas, H. E. Mavrakis, and P. E. Vardas Changes in atrial electrical properties following cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation: relation with recurrence Cardiovasc Res, August 1, 2000; 47(2): 244 - 253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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