(Circulation. 2000;101:2110.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Basic Science Reports |
Surface Potentials From the Region of the Atrioventricular Node and Their Relation to Dual Pathway Electrophysiology
From the Department of Cardiology, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Correspondence to Todor N. Mazgalev, PhD, Research Institute FF1-02, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195. E-mail mazgalt{at}ccf.org
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Abstract |
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Background—Clinical applications of the principles of dual atrioventricular nodal (AVN) electrophysiology in the treatment of AVN reentrant tachycardias rely on empirical findings, such as discontinued conduction curves or the presence of specific catheter-recorded signals. However, neither the shape of the conduction curve nor the surface electrograms have been validated as functionally related to the presence of slow or fast wavefronts.
Methods and Results—We performed in vitro studies using 10 rabbit atrial-AVN preparations. A bipolar roving electrode was used to explore the endocardial surface of the triangle of Koch during programmed electrical stimulation. Microelectrodes were impaled in AVN cells to correlate surface and intracellular responses. In 7 preparations, a specific area near the compact cell region produced surface electrograms that were dissociated in 2 distinct components, with progressive shortening of prematurity. Similar dissociation was demonstrated during Wenckebach periodicity and increased vagal tone. Cellular recordings supported the presence of early ("fast") and late ("slow") wavefronts, with different refractory properties. Although the fast-slow transition was a basis for discontinued propagation, the AVN conduction curves were smooth in the majority of cases.
Conclusions—Exploration of the triangle of Koch during programmed pacing reveals the presence of dual-wavefront surface potentials. Clinical confirmation of these AVN potentials could provide a new, sensitive tool in defining dual AVN electrophysiology.
Key Words: atrioventricular node • conduction • dual pathways • potentials
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Introduction |
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The concept of dual atrioventricular node (AVN) physiology was constructed on the foundation of deductions made from clinical electrocardiograms,1 experimental studies using His bundle recordings,2 and from transmembrane potentials of cells in the atrioventricular (AV) junction.3 However, direct extracellular recordings from the AVN have not been correlated with various functional properties of nodal electrophysiology.
On the basis of the early results obtained with microelectrodes, it has been suggested that recordings of electrical activity with surface electrodes should fail to show rapid transients.4 Indeed, several investigators provided evidence that slow, low-amplitude waves could be recorded between atrial and His bundle potentials.5 6 7 In the process of developing radiofrequency catheter ablation for the termination and cure of AVN reentrant tachycardia, potentials recorded in the inferior-posterior portion of Koch’s triangle, both in animals8 and in man,5 6 served as the targets for successful ablation of slow AVN input. However, it remains unclear if surface potentials from the AVN can carry the distinctive signatures of "slow" and "fast" wavefronts that form the foundation of dual AVN physiology.
In the present study, we made in vitro observations in rabbit AV junctions; these observations suggest that extracellular recordings can be directly associated with dual AVN physiology. These findings provide a new investigational tool and may help to clarify the functional components necessary for the occurrence of smooth or discontinuous conduction curves.
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Methods |
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Rabbit AVN Preparations In Vitro
We used 10 New Zealand White rabbit atrial-AVN preparations, as previously described.9 Briefly, after pentobarbital anesthesia, the heart was removed, and all ventricular tissues were discarded. The preparation was mounted in a thermostatically controlled superfusion system (35.5°C), and it contained the IAS, crista terminalis, and the whole triangle of Koch enclosed between the coronary sinus, the tendon of Todaro, and the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve (Figure 1A
).
Tyrode solution (in mmol/L: NaCl 128.5, KCl 4.7,
CaCl2 1.3, MgCl2 1.05,
NaHCO3 25,
NaH2PO4 1.19, and glucose
11.1) was saturated with 95% O2/5%
CO2 (pH, 7.3 to 7.4) and delivered at 35
mL/min.
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Electrical Recordings and Stimulation
Custom-made, 250-µm Ag-AgCl Teflon-isolated bipolar electrodes
spaced 0.2 to 0.5 mm apart recorded atrial (at crista
terminalis and IAS) and His bundle electrograms. A bipolar
platinum-iridium electrode of similar design was used for pacing on the
septal side.10 11 The AVN conduction curve, A2H2
conduction times versus A1A2 prematurities, was generated by
periodically interrupting the basic drive (A1A2 of 300 ms) with
progressively shorter premature stimuli until the occurrence of AVN
block. Time intervals were determined off-line with 1 ms resolution.
Incremental pacing was implemented in 4 preparations to induce
Wenckebach periodicity.
A roving bipolar electrode (125-µm wires spaced at 0.2 mm)
explored the endocardial surface of the AVN in the triangle of Koch in
search of AVNP. The latter were defined as responses occurring between
the atrial and His electrograms that were functionally related to
propagation through the AVN. They were found in an oblique patch
adjacent to the AV ring located 2 to 3 mm inferior to
the apex (Figure 1A
). The AVNP had an average amplitude of
0.9±0.5 mV and a maximum derivative of 0.06 to 0.25 V/s. They differed
strongly from the atrial or His bundle electrograms (Figure 1B).
These low-amplitude responses were filtered (5 to 500 Hz or, in several
experiments, 1 to 1000 Hz). In all Figures except Figure 1, AVNP traces were enlarged to show details.
We used standard glass microelectrodes to record APs from single AVN cells. Anatomical location, AP morphology and amplitude (65±4 mV; range, 59 to 72 mV), and dAP/dt (<10 V/s), as well as cycle-length dependency were used to identify cellular signals originating from the vicinity of the compact cell region (CCR).4 We also recorded from distal nodal-His (NH) cells.
The Working Hypothesis
The simplified longitudinal cross-section in Figure 1C
illustrates our working hypothesis. The CCR is electrically connected
to an envelope of transitional cells and to deeper inferior
nodal extensions. The latter 2 structures belong to the atrial part of
the specialized axis outside the central fibrous body.12
The transitional cell envelope and inferior nodal
extensions are not sheath-isolated conduction cables and, therefore, no
sharp boundary can be drawn between them on the basis of cellular
content.13 The CCR in the rabbit heart, unlike those in
human and dog hearts,14 is located just after the
penetration of the axis into the insulating tissues of the central
fibrous body and should be considered a part of the penetrating bundle.
We use the term AVN to describe all of the above components of the
conduction axis.
We assumed that the bilayer structure (shown in Figure 1C)
supports 2 distinct wavefronts. An earlier (fast) wavefront propagates
via the transitional cell envelope and, through a shortcut in the
anterodistal CCR, reaches the penetrating bundle (white arrow). A later
(slow) wavefront propagates via the deeper inferior nodal
extensions and the CCR to reach the penetrating bundle (black arrow).
Neither the fast nor the slow wavefront travels via isolated channels;
they are both considered interactive functional entities. This model
does not specify the connections between the AVN and the atrial inputs
(crista terminalis and IAS).
Electrical recordings obtained from the endocardial
surface-patch should reveal the "signatures" of the propagating
wavefronts, provided that the wavefronts do not arrive
simultaneously under the recording electrode (dots
in Figure 1C). Assuming that the wavefronts have different functional
properties, programmed electrical stimulation, incremental pacing, or
autonomic influence can achieve a dissociation. We found support for
this hypothesis in 7 of the studied preparations (70%).
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Results |
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Surface Signals from the AVN Region and Their Dynamic Properties
Typical changes in the morphology of AVN potentials (AVNPs) during programmed stimulation are illustrated in Figure 2
. The AVNP amplitude decreased in
parallel with the shortening of A1A2 prematurity and reached
80% of control (Figure 2A) when A1A2 was 150 ms (Figure 2B). With A1A2 intervals between 150 and 119 ms, AVN conduction
gap9 developed: no His bundle activity existed (block),
and the AVNP amplitude declined to just 40% (Figure 2C).
However, when the A1A2 was 118 ms (Figure 2D), conduction was
unexpectedly restored, and the AVNP revealed a distinct second
component (arrow). For A1A2<118 ms (Figure 2, E through I),
conduction was associated with this delayed second component, which
reached near-normal (83%) amplitude. The earlier component
deteriorated to small electrotonic spikes (arrowheads). Atrial echoes
followed all A2 beats at these short prematurities, and up to 3
consecutive reentry loops were documented.
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indicates conduction block.
Figure 3A shows the superimposed AVNPs
that followed beat A2 in the same experiment. Note that AVNP components
occupied 2 distinct time domains. The early components were
decremental, with shortening of prematurity toward an A1A2 of 118 ms.
In contrast, robust late components were associated with restored
conduction at an A1A2 of 118 ms. At prematurities close to 118 ms, both
AVNP components were present (arrows).
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) and late (
) AVNP
components.
Figure 3B shows the conduction curve A2H2 versus A1A2. In
addition, we plotted the delay from A2 to the occurrence of the early
or late components of the AVNP. Note that early AVNPs (for A1A2>150
ms) were inscribed 
50 ms after A2 and, therefore, the
prematurity-dependent A2H2 delay in this A1A2 range was generated
mostly between the AVNP and H2. In contrast, at the shortest A1A2, the
delay between the late AVNP and H2 remained near constant, so that most
of the A2H2 conduction time was generated before the late AVNP.
Dissociation of the surface AVNP into 2 components in the course of programmed stimulation was evident in 7 of 10 preparations, and it occurred at atrial prematurities A1A2 from 160 to 100 ms. The conduction curves in these experiments were with a gap (n=3), with a jump (n=1), or smooth (n=6).
Surface Signals From the AVN Region and Their Relation to Nodal
Cellular Activity
To verify that the observed phenomena reflected the underlying AVN
cellular responses, we performed experiments in which glass
microelectrodes were impaled in N-type cells (in the CCR) close to the
AVNP electrode (Figure 1C). One such
impalement is illustrated in Figure 4. In
this experiment, conduction gap was observed. Note that AVN block at an
A1A2 of 165 or 150 ms (Figure 4, A and B) was associated with
decremental early AVNP (arrowheads) and cellular action potentials
(AP), suggesting that the available driving force was insufficient to
produce full depolarization of this critical region. When A1A2 was
shortened to 145 ms (Figure 4C), conduction was restored. This
was accompanied by a disappearance of the early AVNP (arrowhead) and by
the inscription of a delayed component with an increased amplitude
(arrow) and a full action potential. At an A1A2 of 140 ms (Figure 4D), the AVNP delay reached 209 ms, and reentry was
initiated.
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Note that the reentrant beat produced an early AVNP component (Figure 4D, arrowhead), suggesting that the subsequent block was via the
fast wavefront (similar to Figure 4A). Note further that the
slow wavefront, illustrated in Figures 4C and 4D (arrows), was
associated with larger His amplitudes.
In 3 hearts, double-component AVNPs were associated with smooth
conduction curves. One such experiment is illustrated in Figure 5. In this experiment, APs were
recorded from the compact cell region (CCR), which was 1 mm
distal to the AVNP recording site. The AVNPs in response to the
A2 beat were decremental (Figure 5, A through C), and a notch
became evident for A1A2<125 ms (Figure 5, D through F, diagonal
arrows). Subsequently, 2 distinct components of the AVNP were
present (Figure 5, G through I, double arrows). The second
one became dominant at the shortest prematurity. Two reentry events
(Figure 5, J and K, curved arrows) were seen in this
experiment.
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, delays from A2 to subsequent AP.
Calibration bar in A indicates AP=40 mV and
dAP/dt=10V/s.
The APs recorded from the single N-fiber downstream of the AVNP
electrode exhibited progressive reductions in amplitude and upstroke
velocity that mirrored the changes in the earlier component of AVNP
(Figure 5, A through G). The time interval between the
fastest downstroke of AVNP and the maximal first derivative,
dAP/dtmax, of the cellular AP (thin lines)
progressively increased from 11 to 33 ms (Figure 5, A through
F). Based on a distance of 1 mm, the calculated apparent
conduction velocity for the fast wavefront declined from 9.1 to 3
cm/s.
The transition between the 2 wavefronts could be traced in Figures 5D through 5F, where the approaching later wavefront produced
electrotonic humps in the AP (vertical arrows). Only the end-tail
portions of these humps are seen because their start is obscured by the
earlier upstroke of the AP. At an A1A2 of 110 ms (Figure 5G),
the transition from a predominantly fast to a predominantly slow
wavefront is completed. At even shorter A1A2 intervals (Figure 5, H through K), cellular signals revealed only one late AP that
followed the second component of the AVNP. In contrast to Figures 5A through 5F, the amplitude and dAP/dt of the AP increased,
despite the shortening of A1A2 (Figure 5, G through K).
Interestingly, the time interval between the second component of the
AVNP and the upstroke of the AP (thin lines) decreased from 43 ms to
38, 16, 15, and 13 ms, respectively, for Figures 5G through
5K. Thus the calculated apparent conduction velocity of the slow
wavefront increased from 2.3 to 7.7 cm/s.
The conduction curve A2H2 versus A1A2 (Figure 5L) had no
jump. However, the curve showing the delay (A2 to AP) in the
arrival of the wavefronts at the impaled fiber exhibited a
discontinuity of 44 ms at an A1A2 of 115 ms. This apparent discrepancy
can be easily explained. At this prematurity (Figure 5F), the
fast wavefront arrives at the impaled cell in 68 ms, but it reaches the
His bundle after an additional 58 ms, for a total
A2H2115 of 126 ms. In contrast, at an A1A2 of 110
ms (Figure 5G), the slow wavefront arrives 44 ms later (A2 to
AP=112 ms), but it reaches the His bundle in just an additional 27 ms,
for a total A2H2110 of 139 ms, which results in
A2H2110-A2H2115=13 ms.
On the basis of the above observations, we hypothesized that that
transition from the fast to slow wavefront takes place at prematurities
where the decremental proximal driving force provided by the fast
wavefront fails to depolarize the distal AV axis and is replaced by the
later and stronger slow wavefront. In Figure 6, the APs were
recorded from a distal NH cell (see Figure 1C). Note
that a declining electrotonic transmission produced foot formations
(Figure 6B, horizontal arrow) preceding the AP upstrokes
at A1A2 intervals of 175, 170, and 165 ms. In addition, the AP
upstrokes declined to a dAP/dtmax of 15 V/s at an
A1A2 of 165 ms (Figure 6B). At an A1A2 of 160 ms, the
electrotonic hump did not reach the threshold for distal excitation.
AVN block would have occurred if not for the arrival, although after a
substantial delay (Figure 6B, *), of the slow wavefront. The
slow wavefront was responsible for the inscription of the last 4 APs
(A1A2 of 160, 155, 150, and 130 ms). Note that despite the shorter
prematurities, the AP upstrokes were without preceding foot
formations and they were faster, reaching a
dAP/dtmax of 22 V/s at an A1A2 of 130 ms. Thus,
the slow wavefront provided a stronger driving force. However, its
delayed arrival was responsible for the jump in the A2H2 conduction
curve (Figure 6C, star). It is worth noticing that the
transition to the slow wavefront was associated with an increase in the
amplitude of the His electrogram (Figure 6B). This finding,
which is similar to that in Figure 4, suggests that the His
bundle was engaged in a different spatial fashion by the 2
wavefronts.
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Surface Signals from the AVN Region During Fast Atrial Rates or
Increased Autonomic Tone
Dissociation of the AVNP signals into early and late components
was also observed during high-rate pacing. In Figure 7, a shortening of the
cycle length from 160 to 100 ms resulted in stable Wenckebach paradigms
(numbers in brackets). The early AVNP components (arrowheads) occurred
62 ms after the electrogram of the interatrial septum (IAS), whereas
the later components (arrows) were inscribed at 75 to 77 ms or even
later. Note that the low and high amplitude His electrograms were
associated with the early and late AVNPs, respectively.
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On the basis of these criteria, one can conclude that, in Figure 7A during 3:2 Wenckebach, the fast wavefront generated a full
AVNP in conducted beat 2, but it produced only early electrotonic
glitches in beats 1 (blocked) and 3 (conducted via the slow
wavefront).
In Figure 7B at 5:3 conduction, beat 2 was conducted via the
fast wavefront (arrowhead), whereas the slow wavefront produced the
later AVNP components (arrows) in conducted beats 3 (176 ms after IAS)
and 5 (75 ms after IAS).
In Figure 7C at 2:1 conduction, all AVNPs were inscribed 62 ms
after the IAS electrogram (arrowheads), suggesting that they were
generated by the earlier wavefront. In Figure 7D, the pattern
was again 2:1; however, now conduction to the His bundle was supported
by the slow wavefront (late AVNP components, arrow).
Finally, we determined that autonomic maneuvers produced a differential
effect on the dual AVN electrophysiology, as reflected in the AVNP. In
this study, brief bursts of subthreshold postganglionic vagal
stimulation with an amplitude of 50 µA were delivered through the
same electrode that recorded the AVNP. The observations shown in
Figure 8 were made at
prematurities of the fast-slow wavefront transition. At an A1A2 of 125
ms (Figure 8A), the decremental fast wavefront signature was
still present (arrowhead), whereas at an A1A2 of 123 ms, it had
faded away (Figure 8B, arrowhead) and the delayed AVNP component
was inscribed at 156 ms (arrow). When returning back to an A1A2 of 125
ms (Figure 8C), we applied postganglionic vagal stimulation. The
fast wavefront seen in Figure 8A was now fully abolished
(arrowhead), and the AVNP of the slow wavefront (arrow) was inscribed
after a jump in the delay to 177 ms. The direct vagal effect on the
slow wavefront can be determined by comparing Figure 8B and
Figure 8D, where at an A1A2 of 123 ms, the slow wavefront
(arrow) was delayed by postganglionic vagal stimulation with only 22 ms
(178 versus 156 ms). Thus, the AVNP revealed that in this experiment,
minute shortening of atrial prematurity from 125 to 123 ms produced a
block of the fast wavefront (Figure 8B). A similar result was
obtained with vagal stimulation (Figure 8C). The slow wavefront
was insensitive to this minute shortening of A1A2 (Figure 8, C
and D) and was also less sensitive to vagal stimulation (Figure 8, B and D).
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Discussion |
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A major finding in this study was the observation that electrical signals recorded from the endocardial surface of the triangle of Koch revealed the presence of distinct, separate wavefronts that likely represent the fast and slow components of dual AVN electrophysiology. Simultaneous analysis of these AVN potentials and the nodal cellular responses indicated that the transition from fast to slow wavefront conduction could produce either smooth or discontinuous conduction curves.
Origin of the AVNP
On the basis of the location of the bipolar electrodes and of the
cellular activity recorded with microelectrodes, it seemed that the
AVNPs were generated by the excitation of fibers located in the
vicinity of the CCR. A nonuniform anisotropy has been demonstrated in
the superficial layers of the triangle of Koch.15 16
This produces a preferential conduction parallel to the
tricuspid valve annulus. The delay in these layers was relatively short
(typically 40 ms) and, in contrast to atrial-His delay, had minimal
dependence on prematurity.16 According to our model
(Figure 1C), fast pathway conduction occurred from the envelope
of transitional cells via a relatively short transverse route in the
anterior triangle of Koch that connects the septum with the penetrating
bundle and is likely to transverse at least a portion of the
CCR.14
Our model (Figure 1) further assumed that slow pathway
conduction originated in the deeper nodal layers that include the
inferior-nodal extensions. The wavefront in this domain
would propagate longitudinally through the inferior nodal
extensions and the entire CCR. The functional difference between the
fast and slow pathway domains may reflect preferential directional
propagation across and along, respectively, the fibers that form the
complex nodal architecture. Propagation in such a milieu can be either
depressed or enhanced by the combined action of the branching strands
as current load or source, respectively ("pull-push
effects").17 At present, it is not clear if and how
the above factors determine the functional fast and slow wavefront
domains.
Fast and Slow Versus Early and Late Wavefronts
The terms fast and slow were originally introduced to describe
differences in the observed time intervals during common AVN reentrant
tachycardia, not velocities. In fact, it has never been
demonstrated that the wavefronts deserve their adjectives.
In determining propagation, one must first consider the time needed for
the atrial wavefront(s) to arrive in and then to transverse the CCR.
The subsequent transmission from the CCR into the penetrating bundle
occurs between neighboring cells, nodal and NH, which have distinct
morphological and electrical differences.18 Such
electromorphological mismatches may serve as a functional barrier over
which critical electrotonic transmission can take place. This principle
has been applied to the AVN, and the so-called Rosenblueth
barrier19 has been proposed to explain marginal
conduction, such as at shorter prematurities or Wenckebach periodicity.
The model in Figure 1 depicts such an entity as a (functional)
cleft between the CCR and penetrating bundle.
Our results suggest that the fast wavefront arrived promptly in
the CCR and was therefore dominant at long prematurities. As seen in
Figures 5A through 5F, the cellular coupling interval in the CCR
was very close to atrial prematurity A1A2. Therefore, progressive
shortening of A1A2 produced decremental cellular responses, as expected
from the refractory properties of the nodal cells. The reduced AP
amplitude led to a progressive delay of the electrotonic transmission
over the Rosenblueth barrier (Figure 6, foot formations) and
eventually to failure (Figure 6, at an A1A2 of 160 ms). Thus,
the earlier wavefront quickly reached the CCR but, with the shortening
of A1A2, produced decremental cellular APs, slow electrotonic
transmission, and was ultimately blocked.
The slow wavefront, in contrast, reached the compact region after a
substantial delay after beat A2 (Figures 5 and 6), which
could be due to meandering through the inferior nodal
extensions. This, in effect, protected the CCR cells from excessive
prematurity. That is, the N-cell coupling intervals seen in Figures 5H through 5K were increasing while A1A2 was shortening. As a
result, a reversal toward an improvement of the AP amplitude and
upstroke occurred. Thus, the later wavefront was slow in reaching the
CCR, but it resulted in a more robust driving force for subsequent
prompt transmission to the His bundle.
The above analysis suggests that conduction velocity may not be constant along the entire pathway length of either wavefront. This, plus the unknown lengths of the particular portions of the 2 pathways, makes it impossible to precisely determine velocities.
Dual AVN Physiology and the Discontinuity of Conduction
One should consider 2 types of discontinuity in AVN
conduction. Type 1 is the functional microdiscontinuity where the
impulse "stops" proximal to a barrier and proceeds on the distal
side after a distinct delay. This was illustrated by the foot
formations in the NH cell (Figure 6). Type 2 is the
discontinuity produced by the existence of, and the transition between,
fast and slow wavefronts. Although the conduction along the AVN axis
does not stop, a distinct delay may be observed between the times of
arrival at the CCR of the failing fast wavefront and the approaching
slow wavefront (Figures 2 through 6).
The A2H2 conduction curves could be smooth (Figure 5), have a
jump (Figure 6), or contain a gap (Figure 3). The jump,
and especially the gap, refers to the duality of AVN electrophysiology.
The smooth conduction curve, however, can coexist with either of the
above-described discontinuities. For example, the conduction curve in
Figure 6C was smooth for all A1A2>160 ms, despite the presence
of type 1 discontinuity. Similarly, a smooth A2H2 curve in Figure 5L was observed, despite the type 2 discontinuity seen in the
AVNP/AP records. In the latter case, this was due to the equalizing
effect of the sum of the proximal and distal delays for each wavefront
at the A1A2 prematurity, at which the
transition between the 2 wave fronts occurred. Only when an excessively
long proximal delay of the slow wavefront existed was a jump-curve
observed (Figure 6C).
Thus, although dual wavefront conduction is apparently a universal feature of the AVN, it cannot be reliably deduced from the shape of the conduction curve. Moreover, interaction between the 2 wavefronts may further modulate the discontinuous pattern of AVN conduction.10 20
Dual AVN Physiology and Reentry Beats
Reentry loops were frequently observed in these experiments
(Figures 2 through 5) in the presence of either smooth
(Figure 5) or discontinuous (Figure 2) conduction
curves.
Although the common sequence of atrial excitation during reentry was
IAS followed by crista terminalis, in several experiments, both the
crista terminalis and the IAS inputs to the AVN were
simultaneously and retrogradely engaged (Figure 5).
The anterograde part of the reentry loop could be completed
either by the slow (Figures 2H and 5J) or the fast
(Figures 3G and 3I) wavefront. This intermittent usage may
reflect the current refractoriness of each domain and may have
functional importance during high atrial rates (Figure 7) or
atrial fibrillation. Therefore, the assumption that the fast wavefront
should be ignored in such conditions may be incorrect.
Clinical Considerations and Limitations
Recording AVNP in patients should be achievable using
existing bipolar catheters. The effect of ablation procedures on the
AVNP, if shown to exist, could serve as a new end point in evaluating
the efficacy of the intervention.
However, one should be aware of important interspecies differences. The CCR in humans is part of the atrial component of the conduction axis. In rabbits, it is, to a large extent, part of the penetrating bundle. Furthermore, the inferior nodal extension21 may not always be a prominent feature of human and dog hearts,14 and lesions identified as ablating the slow pathway in humans may involve only the working atrial myocardium.15 The inferior location of the CCR in humans (and dogs) outside the fibrous body may accentuate the differences between the slow and fast wavefronts by providing the latter with an easier connection between the envelope of transitional cells and the penetrating bundle. Although speculative, such morphological differences in the structure of the specialized axis may also underlie the higher likelihood for the initiation of AVN reentry in humans.
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Acknowledgments |
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Supported in part by grants 9807701 (American Heart Association, Ohio Valley Affiliate) and 1R01HL60833-01A1 (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute). The authors thank Dr Benjamin J. Scherlag, PhD, for reading the draft manuscript and for his constructive discussion and criticism. This acknowledgment does not imply that Dr Sherlag endorses or fully agrees with authors’ opinions.
Received July 28, 1999; revision received November 15, 1999; accepted December 1, 1999.
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