(Circulation. 1999;100:717-722.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Effect of Postmenopausal Hormones on Inflammation-Sensitive Proteins
The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Study
From the Departments of Medicine (M.C.), Pathology (M.C., P.A.S., R.P.T.) and Biochemistry (R.P.T.), University of Vermont, Burlington; Department of Public Health Sciences (C.L.), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC; Department of Family and Preventive Medicine (E.B.-C.), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, Calif; Stanford Center for Research in Disease Prevention (M.L.S.), Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif; Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology (C.K.), Georgetown University, Washington, DC; and Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology (H.L.J.), University of California, Los Angeles.
Correspondence and reprint requests to Mary Cushman, MD, MSc, Department of Medicine, University of Vermont, 55A South Park Drive, Colchester, VT 05446. E-mail mcushman{at}salus.uvm.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Observational studies in healthy women suggest postmenopausal hormone therapy reduces risk of coronary events. In contrast, in a recent clinical trial of women with coronary disease, a subgroup analysis demonstrated increased risk during the early months of therapy. Because higher levels of inflammation factors predict vascular disease outcomes, the effect of hormones on these factors is of interest.
Methods and Results—Four inflammation-sensitive factors, C-reactive protein, soluble E-selectin, von Willebrand factor antigen, and coagulation factor VIIIc were measured at baseline, 12, and 36 months in 365 participants of the Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Trial, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the effects of 4 hormone preparations on cardiovascular disease risk factors. Compared with placebo, all 4 active preparations resulted in a large sustained increase in the concentration of C-reactive protein and a decrease in soluble E-selectin (P=0.0001). There were no effects of treatment on concentrations of von Willebrand factor or factor VIIIc. There were no differences in effects among treatment arms. Relative to placebo, when combining active treatment arms, final concentrations of C-reactive protein were 85% higher whereas E-selectin was 18% lower compared with baseline.
Conclusions—Postmenopausal hormones rapidly increased the concentration of the inflammation factor C-reactive protein. Such an effect may be related to adverse early effects of estrogen therapy. In contrast, hormones reduced the concentration of soluble E-selectin, and this might be considered an anti-inflammatory effect. Because PEPI was not designed to assess clinical endpoints, studies of the impact of hormone-mediated changes in inflammation on risk of subsequent coronary events are needed.
Key Words: risk factors • hormones • inflammation • coagulation • women
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Introduction |
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Most observational epidemiological evidence suggests that hormone replacement therapy reduces cardiovascular risk.1 In contrast, a pooled analysis of short-term randomized clinical trials showed adverse effects, with a relative risk of 1.39 of cardiovascular events.2 The recently published Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) showed no reduction in rate of coronary events in women with coronary disease who were randomly assigned to estrogen plus medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) versus placebo.3 Although these experimental findings cannot be generalized to all forms of estrogen, and other clinical trials of hormone therapy are ongoing, defining hormone therapy effects on newly described coronary risk markers, including inflammation factors, may provide useful data concerning mechanisms of therapy-mediated risk alteration.
Atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and inflammation are linked through several molecular pathways.4 5 In recent studies, 4 inflammation-sensitive factors, C-reactive protein, von Willebrand factor (vWF), coagulation factor VIIIc, and soluble E-selectin, predicted increased risk of coronary heart disease in various populations,6 7 8 9 10 11 some of which included women.8 9 10 11 The latter 3 proteins may be involved as markers of endothelial damage reflecting preclinical atherosclerosis. Enhanced coagulation with estrogen use12 may provide a partial mechanism for coronary risk modulation. However, experimental data on the effects of hormones on these 4 inflammation proteins is lacking.
In a cross-sectional study of long-term elderly users, hormone use was associated with over 50% higher levels of C-reactive protein compared with nonusers, and this was most apparent in women with higher body-mass index.13 Factor VIIIc level was lower in users but this was not independent of other risk factors.14 Hormone use was not associated with vWF concentration in another cross-sectional study,15 however the only prospective report available was a small trial that showed reduced vWF concentration with hormone administration after surgical menopause.16 To our knowledge, the effect of hormone therapy on soluble E-selectin has not been reported, nor are there randomized clinical trial data available for any of these factors.
The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) trial was a randomized, placebo-controlled trial designed to determine the effect of different preparations of postmenopausal hormones on cardiac risk factors.17 Effect of treatment on lipoprotein(a) in a PEPI subgroup was recently reported.18 To further define the biological effects of hormone therapy, we measured the levels of C-reactive protein, soluble E-selectin, vWF, and factor VIIIc in this PEPI subgroup.
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Methods |
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Study
The PEPI trial was a 3-year randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to compare 4 hormone therapy regimens and placebo for effects on cardiovascular risk factors. The design and main results have been published.17 The estrogen regimens were: (1) placebo, (2) conjugated equine estrogens (CEE), 0.625 mg/d; (3) CEE, 0.625 mg/d plus MPA, 10 mg/d, days 1 through 12 each month; (4) CEE, 0.625 mg/d plus MPA, 2.5 mg/d; or (5) CEE, 0.625 mg/d plus micronized progesterone (MP), 200 mg/d, days 1 through 12 each calendar month. Randomization was stratified by study center and hysterectomy status.
Subjects
The study included ambulatory postmenopausal women who did not
possess the following characteristics: (1) natural menopause before age
44 or <1 year or >10 years before enrollment, (2) hysterectomy within
2 months, (3) body-mass index 
40 kg/m2, and (4)
medical history suggesting a possible contraindication to hormone use,
or a factor which might limit follow-up. The study was approved by each
center's institutional review committee, and participants provided
written informed consent using approved guidelines. There were 875
women enrolled at 7 centers. The 383 women who formed the subset for
this study were enrolled at the 3 centers where more detailed
laboratory studies were done: George Washington University Medical
Center, University of California at Los Angeles, and Stanford
University.
At baseline and each yearly visit after randomization, demographic information, medical history, and lifestyle information were obtained in addition to measurements of weight, waist circumference, height, and seated blood pressure.17
Blood Collection and Analysis
Fasting morning blood samples were obtained from each
participant at baseline, 12, and 36 months after randomization. Within
30 minutes, plasma was separated by centrifugation at
4°C and 30 000g, then stored at -70°C. All assays were
run at the completion of the study with each participant's sequential
samples run concurrently. Factor VIIIc was measured in citrated plasma,
using factor VIII-deficient plasma and partial thromboplastin (Organon
Teknika), with a coefficient of variation of 10%. An unassayed
normal plasma pool (George King Biomedical Inc.) was used as the
standard and calibrated with the World Health Organization reference
plasma. One of the blood collection tubes contained 4.5 mmol/L
EDTA plus protease inhibitors (0.15 KIU/L aprotonin, and
20 µmol/L D-Phe-Pro-Arg-chloromethyl ketone; Hematologic
Technologies, Inc.) as the anticoagulant; this plasma was used for
measurement of other inflammation factors. C-reactive protein was
measured by immunoassay (antibodies and antigens from Calbiochem) with
a coefficient of variation of 7.7%.19 Soluble
E-selectin and vWF antigen were measured by immunoassays (R&D Systems
Inc. and Asserachrom vWF, American Bioproducts), with respective
coefficients of variation of 10% and 3%. Concentrations of lipids,
glucose, insulin, and fibrinogen were measured as previously
reported.17
Inspection of the distributions of the inflammation factors (blind to treatment arm) indicated possible preanalytical influence on some values for factor VIIIc, with more than the expected number of low values. Most women with low values also had prothrombin fragment 1 to 2 (Behring Diagnostics, Inc., Westwood, Mass) concentrations >800 nmol · L-1, consistent with preanalytical clotting artifact.20 Therefore, for the analyses of factor VIIIc, 52 women with fragment 1 to 2 values of 800 nmol · L-1 were excluded.
Statistical Analysis
SAS was used for statistical analysis. Analyses
were limited to adherent women, defined as those who, on the basis of
pill counts, took 80% of their assigned pills during the 6 months
before the 12- and 36-month clinic visit. The distributions of
C-reactive protein, E-selectin, and vWF were skewed; analyses
were conducted on log-transformed data. For presentation,
means and standard deviations were transformed back to their original
units. Baseline characteristics, including values for the inflammation
factors, were compared among randomized treatment groups using ANOVA or
2 test. Cross-sectional correlates of
the inflammation factors with other vascular disease risk factors were
determined by Pearson correlation coefficients or ANOVA. Changes in
inflammation factors over time were compared among treatment groups
using Wald tests from Laird-Ware models for repeated
measures,21 adjusting for the stratification factors
(study center and hysterectomy status). For C-reactive protein and
E-selectin, 10 pairwise comparisons of treatment arms were made, with
Bonferroni adjustments to control the overall type I error. Pearson
correlation coefficients were used to characterize associations between
changes in inflammation factors and changes in other factors.
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Results |
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Baseline characteristics, including baseline levels of the inflammation factors, were similar among groups defined by treatment assignment (Table 1
). The mean age
was 56 years, 87% were white, there were few current smokers (12%),
and 26% reported prior hysterectomy. Prior estrogen use was reported
by 55%. At baseline, 12, and 36 months there were 365, 316, and 264
women studied, respectively. Reasons for exclusion were either a
missing blood sample (n=18, 18, and 27, respectively) or nonadherence
to assigned treatment (by pill count or discontinuation; n=49 and 92,
at 12 and 36 months). The main reason for exclusion was
protocol-mandated discontinuation of unopposed estrogen due to
endometrial hyperplasia.17
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Combining all randomized arms, mean pretreatment concentrations of C-reactive protein and soluble E-selectin were higher in women with prior hysterectomy (1.28 versus 1.05 mg/L, P=0.02; and 38.2 versus 34.6 µg/L, P=0.05, respectively), whereas factor VIIIc was lower (102% versus 113%, P=0.03). Mean C-reactive protein and E-selectin concentrations were higher in the 49 nonwhite compared with the 316 white participants, and this difference was statistically significant for E-selectin (41.6 versus 34.6 µg/L, P=0.005). There were no differences in concentrations of any of the factors by smoking status, alcohol use, or prior use of hormones.
Baseline concentrations of C-reactive protein and E-selectin were correlated with each other (r=0.32, P<0.001). C-reactive protein, but not E-selectin, was associated with higher fibrinogen (r=0.37, P<0.001). Higher concentrations of both of these factors were associated with higher body-mass index and waist-hip ratio, higher LDLc, glucose and insulin concentrations, and lower HDLc (data not shown). There was a positive correlation of vWF with factor VIIIc (r=0.49, P<0.001), and both of these were negatively associated with soluble E-selectin (r=-0.15 and -0.22, P<0.01, respectively). Unlike C-reactive protein and E-selectin, concentrations of these 2 proteins were not correlated with other risk factors, but both increased with age.
The effect of treatment on each inflammation factor over 36 months is
shown in Figure 1 and Table 2. C-reactive protein and soluble
E-selectin did not change over time in the placebo group (mean
estimated changes: -0.05 mg/L and +0.90 µg/L over 36 months,
respectively). In contrast, the concentration of C-reactive protein
rose in each active treatment group while the concentration of
soluble E-selectin decreased. All pairwise comparisons between the
active arms and placebo were significant (P=0.001), although
there were no significant differences among active treatment arms. Most
of the effect of therapy on C-reactive protein and E-selectin occurred
in the first 12 months of therapy; these effects were sustained over 3
years. The treatment effect on C-reactive protein was substantial. At 3
years, the mean estimated increase in C-reactive protein in all active
treatment groups relative to placebo was 1.06 mg/L (85% increase). The
mean estimated decrease of E-selectin relative to placebo was 5.8
µg/L (18% decrease). The effect of treatment on fibrinogen was
similar to that previously reported in the entire PEPI
cohort.17 Baseline fibrinogen differed by treatment
assignment, and power limited interpretation of the findings; the only
significant pairwise difference over time was between CEE and placebo
(mean change -0.02 versus +0.06 g/L, P<0.05). Relative to
placebo, there was no significant increase in fibrinogen in any of the
active treatments, as was observed for C-reactive protein.
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, CEE; 
,
CEE + MPA cyc; 
, CEE + MPA con; 
, CEE + MP. Probability
value from log-transformed data, adjusted for clinical center and
hysterectomy status, and for 10 pairwise comparisons. For C-reactive
protein and E-selectin, the significant differences were between the
placebo group and each active treatment arm. For fibrinogen,
analyses were adjusted for the baseline value, and the
significant difference was between CEE and placebo.
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In comparison to placebo, there were no effects of treatment on
the concentrations of factor VIIIc or vWF antigen over time (Figure 1
, Table 2).
Combining the placebo and active treatment
arms, factor VIIIc increased over time, from a mean baseline
concentration of 109% to 143% 36 months later. The vWF antigen
concentration did not change over time.
Table 3 shows the correlation of
longitudinal changes in C-reactive protein and E-selectin with changes
in selected risk factors, by treatment assignment. In active treatment
arms, the increase in C-reactive protein and decrease in E-selectin
were associated with respective increase and decrease in body-mass
index. These relationships were similar for the placebo group,
suggesting the weight change associations were not mediated by
treatment assignment. The increase in C-reactive protein was weakly
associated with an increase in fibrinogen concentration, regardless of
treatment assignment. Lowering of E-selectin by active treatment was
correlated with a decrease in LDLc, which was not observed in the
placebo group. Among women on active treatment, change in C-reactive
protein or E-selectin was not associated with change in HDLc, waist-hip
ratio, or fasting insulin or glucose levels.
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The main analyses were repeated after stratification by baseline levels of cardiovascular risk factors. The effect of active treatment on levels of C-reactive protein or E-selectin did not differ by baseline level of any factors studied, including baseline levels of C-reactive protein, E-selectin, fibrinogen, lipids, glucose, body-mass index, or waist-hip ratio. There was also no difference by race, prior estrogen use, or smoking status.
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Discussion |
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The main findings of this study were that compared with placebo, estrogen alone or in combination with MP or MPA increased the concentration of C-reactive protein and decreased the concentration of soluble E-selectin over 12 and 36 months of follow-up, in women who adhered to their treatment. There were no effects of therapy on concentrations of coagulation factor VIIIc or vWF. Administration of MPA or MP, compared with no progestin, did not influence the magnitude of the changes. The lack of effect of progestin confirmed, in part, findings of cross-sectional studies13 15 that examined fibrinogen, factor VIII, and vWF. Effects of active treatment on E-selectin and LDLc were correlated, suggesting common regulation by treatment. A longitudinal increase in factor VIIIc was observed in all study arms, and this increase was larger than an expected 14% absolute age-related increase.22
The clinical meaning of increased C-reactive protein with postmenopausal hormones remains to be clarified, but the finding is in accord with a cross-sectional study of older women using hormones.13 Increased C-reactive protein with hormone treatment provides a possible mechanistic correlate to results of a pooled analysis of short-term trials2 and the recent subgroup finding of the HERS trial, which demonstrated an early increase in coronary risk with hormone treatment in women with established coronary disease.3 Individuals with existing coronary disease,23 those with noninvasively measured subclinical disease (M. Cushman, MD, unpublished data, 1998), and those at greatest risk of future cardiovascular events7 8 have higher levels of C-reactive protein, presumably reflecting upregulation of at least some aspects of inflammation involved with atherosclerosis and/or thrombosis. Taken together, the findings suggest that one mechanism for a putative adverse cardiovascular effect of postmenopausal hormones is through increasing inflammation, possibly related to accelerated atherosclerosis, plaque destabilization, or thrombosis, which might be enhanced in women with existing disease. There were too few women in PEPI with prevalent or incident coronary disease to test this hypothesis.
In this study, hormone therapy had no effect on vWF or its associated protein, factor VIIIc. To address these null findings, post hoc power calculations indicated 80% power with alpha of 0.05 to detect a 24% difference between treatments in longitudinal change of factor VIII and a 1 µg/L difference in vWF. Both effect sizes are reasonable.
The correlation of change in E-selectin with change in LDL-c in women assigned to hormones, but not placebo, suggests a hypothesis that part of the influence of hormones on E-selectin is mediated by lipid effects. Regardless, a decrease of soluble E-selectin with hormone use may be thought of as a benefit of treatment, under the assumption that soluble E-selectin levels contribute to atherosclerosis or reflect regulation of endothelial cell E-selectin by cytokine stimulation. Higher concentrations of adhesion molecules have been associated with risk of first myocardial infarction in 2 studies, where observed effects were independent of lipid levels.9 24 Apart from reflecting cytokine stimulation of endothelial cells by interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor, an active role for circulating E-selectin itself has not been clarified.25 Possible roles include anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, and procoagulant effects.25 26 In one study, estradiol-treated cultured endothelial cells exhibited an increase in E-selectin mRNA expression, and leukocyte binding.27 The relationship of this to our findings is not clear.
The opposite effects of postmenopausal hormones on C-reactive protein and E-selectin may relate to the early increase and subsequent decline in myocardial infarction risk with hormones observed in the HERS trial.3 It is possible that an increase in C-reactive protein represents changes associated with plaque destabilization and rupture, events that are more likely in women with existing coronary disease. This is supported by findings that the risk of myocardial infarction related to higher C-reactive protein concentration in older women is greatest for events occurring within 1 year of measurement.8 On the other hand, the reduction of E-selectin with treatment may be associated with physiological changes that require a longer time to translate to cardioprotection, in a manner similar to that proposed for lipid effects of hormone use. This idea is suggested because the effects of therapy on E-selectin and LDLc were correlated. Moreover, high levels of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 tend to predict later rather than earlier risk of myocardial infarction.24
Our findings illustrate the complexity of regulation of the
inflammation factors studied. Cross-sectional correlates of C-reactive
protein and E-selectin were similar, but effects of hormone therapy on
these proteins were opposite, suggesting (1) different mechanisms for
these effects, and (2) that effects of treatment on both proteins are
not mediated by these other risk factors. Similarly, there were
discordant effects of hormone therapy on C-reactive protein and
fibrinogen, 2 proteins whose levels are also correlated with each
other. The longitudinal correlations of fibrinogen and C-reactive
protein concentrations did not differ by treatment assignment (Table 3),
suggesting unrelated mechanisms for treatment effects on
these 2 proteins. Our study cannot determine the reasons for these
findings; further basic research is required.
The major strengths of this study are the prospective placebo-controlled design and well-characterized population, both of which allowed for detailed analysis of observed effects. Randomization reduced the possibility of confounding for unknown covariates, and women in the 5 study arms did not differ by known potential confounders. Limiting the study to adherers improved confidence that the true effects of the hormones were measured.
The primary limitation of this study was the inability to assess the effects of changes in inflammation on risk of coronary events; PEPI was not designed to detect relationships of risk factor changes with clinical endpoints. High intraindividual variability of the factors, especially factor VIIIc, may have limited the ability to detect relatively small influences of therapy. Multiple secondary statistical analyses were performed, introducing the possibility of false-positive findings. For example, cautious interpretation for the correlation of change in soluble E-selectin with change in LDLc on treatment is necessary, because a mechanism is not known at this time. For the main analyses of effect of treatment, however, stringent statistical criteria were used to account for multiple comparisons.
In conclusion, in this 3-year randomized, placebo-controlled trial, each of 4 hormone regimens resulted in an early and sustained increase in C-reactive protein and decrease in soluble E-selectin concentrations, with no effect of treatment on concentrations of vWF and factor VIIIc. In the context of adverse early cardiovascular effects of hormones, results suggest that alterations of inflammation regulation may be in the causal pathway. In the context of cardioprotection from postmenopausal hormones, results suggest that this protection is not mediated by C-reactive protein (or the metabolic pathways it represents). To address the clinical sequelae of these findings, studies linking these biochemical changes to subsequent clinical events are needed.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by cooperative agreement research grants U01-HL-40154, U01-HL40185, U01-HL-40195, U01-HL40205, U01-HL-40207, U01-HL-40231, U01-HL-40232, U01-HL-40273 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the National Institutes of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Diseases; and K08-HL-03618 (to M.C.), T32-HL-07594 (to P.A.S.), and RO1-HL-46696 (to R.P.T.). The National Packaged medications and placebos for PEPI were provided by Wyeth-Ayerst Research, Schering Plow Research Institute, and Upjohn Co. We would like to thank all the members of the PEPI Trial Research Group, with special thanks to the clinical staff of the 3 participating clinical centers at George Washington University Medical Center, University of California at Los Angeles, and Stanford University, and the technical staff at the Laboratory for Clinical Biochemistry Research at the University of Vermont.
Received February 10, 1999; accepted April 28, 1999.
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Y. Ma, J. A Griffith, L. Chasan-Taber, B. C Olendzki, E. Jackson, E. J Stanek III, W. Li, S. L Pagoto, A. R Hafner, and I. S Ockene Association between dietary fiber and serum C-reactive protein. Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2006; 83(4): 760 - 766. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. L Hall, K. Vafeiadou, J. Hallund, S. Bugel, M. Reimann, C. Koebnick, H-J F. Zunft, M. Ferrari, F. Branca, T. Dadd, et al. Soy-isoflavone-enriched foods and markers of lipid and glucose metabolism in postmenopausal women: interactions with genotype and equol production Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2006; 83(3): 592 - 600. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Hsia, R. D. Langer, J. E. Manson, L. Kuller, K. C. Johnson, S. L. Hendrix, M. Pettinger, S. R. Heckbert, N. Greep, S. Crawford, et al. Conjugated Equine Estrogens and Coronary Heart Disease: The Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med, February 13, 2006; 166(3): 357 - 365. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. L McVeigh, B. L Dillingham, J. W Lampe, and A. M Duncan Effect of soy protein varying in isoflavone content on serum lipids in healthy young men Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2006; 83(2): 244 - 251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. S Kornman Interleukin 1 genetics, inflammatory mechanisms, and nutrigenetic opportunities to modulate diseases of aging Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2006; 83(2): 475S - 483S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. L Hall, K. Vafeiadou, J. Hallund, S. Bugel, C. Koebnick, M. Reimann, M. Ferrari, F. Branca, D. Talbot, T. Dadd, et al. Soy-isoflavone-enriched foods and inflammatory biomarkers of cardiovascular disease risk in postmenopausal women: interactions with genotype and equol production Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2005; 82(6): 1260 - 1268. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. R. Sowers, K. A. Matthews, M. Jannausch, J. F. Randolph, D. McConnell, K. Sutton-Tyrrell, R. Little, B. Lasley, and R. Pasternak Hemostatic Factors and Estrogen during the Menopausal Transition J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2005; 90(11): 5942 - 5948. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Cushman, A. M. Arnold, B. M. Psaty, T. A. Manolio, L. H. Kuller, G. L. Burke, J. F. Polak, and R. P. Tracy C-Reactive Protein and the 10-Year Incidence of Coronary Heart Disease in Older Men and Women: The Cardiovascular Health Study Circulation, July 5, 2005; 112(1): 25 - 31. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. F. Hilpert, P. M. Kris-Etherton, and S. G. West Lipid Response to a Low-Fat Diet with or without Soy Is Modified by C-Reactive Protein Status in Moderately Hypercholesterolemic Adults J. Nutr., May 1, 2005; 135(5): 1075 - 1079. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. C. Register, J. A. Cann, J. R. Kaplan, J. K. Williams, M. R. Adams, T. M. Morgan, M. S. Anthony, R. M. Blair, J. D. Wagner, and T. B. Clarkson Effects of Soy Isoflavones and Conjugated Equine Estrogens on Inflammatory Markers in Atherosclerotic, Ovariectomized Monkeys J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2005; 90(3): 1734 - 1740. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Ropponen, K. Aittomaki, M. J. Tikkanen, and O. Ylikorkala Levels of Serum C-Reactive Protein during Oral and Transdermal Estradiol in Postmenopausal Women with and without a History of Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2005; 90(1): 142 - 146. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E.-G. V. Giardina, H. J. Chen, R. R. Sciacca, and L. E. Rabbani Dynamic Variability of Hemostatic and Fibrinolytic Factors in Young Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2004; 89(12): 6179 - 6184. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. F. Kernohan, A. Spiers, N. Sattar, C. Hillier, S. J Cleland, M. Small, M.-A. Lumsden, J. M. Connell, and J. R Petrie Effects of low-dose continuous combined HRT on vascular function in women with type 2 diabetes Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research, October 1, 2004; 1(2): 82 - 88. [Abstract] [PDF]
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K. M. Douglas, A. J. Taylor, and P. G. O'Malley Relationship Between Depression and C-Reactive Protein in a Screening Population Psychosom Med, September 1, 2004; 66(5): 679 - 683. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. S. Legro, E. Myers, and for the Reproductive Medicine Network Surrogate end-points or primary outcomes in clinical trials in women with polycystic ovary syndrome? Hum. Reprod., August 1, 2004; 19(8): 1697 - 1704. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. M. Prestwood, C. Unson, M. Kulldorff, and M. Cushman The Effect of Different Doses of Micronized 17ss-Estradiol on C-Reactive Protein, Interleukin-6, and Lipids in Older Women J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, August 1, 2004; 59(8): M827 - M832. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. K. Koh, M.-S. Shin, I. Sakuma, J. Y. Ahn, D. K. Jin, H. S. Kim, D. S. Kim, S. H. Han, W.-J. Chung, and E. K. Shin Effects of Conventional or Lower Doses of Hormone Replacement Therapy in Postmenopausal Women Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, August 1, 2004; 24(8): 1516 - 1521. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. K. Koh and I. Sakuma Should Progestins Be Blamed for the Failure of Hormone Replacement Therapy to Reduce Cardiovascular Events in Randomized Controlled Trials? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, July 1, 2004; 24(7): 1171 - 1179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Tsuda, I. Nishio, V. Vaccarino, Z. Q. Lin, J. A. Mattera, S. A. Roumanis, S. V. Kasl, J. L. Abramson, and H. M. Krumholz Sex Hormones and Membrane Microviscosity in Elderly Women * Response Circulation, May 11, 2004; 109(18): e218 - e218. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Wakatsuki, N. Ikenoue, K. Shinohara, K. Watanabe, and T. Fukaya Effect of Lower Dosage of Oral Conjugated Equine Estrogen on Inflammatory Markers and Endothelial Function in Healthy Postmenopausal Women Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, March 1, 2004; 24(3): 571 - 576. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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R. G. Barr, C. C. Wentowski, F. Grodstein, S. C. Somers, M. J. Stampfer, J. Schwartz, F. E. Speizer, and C. A. Camargo Jr Prospective Study of Postmenopausal Hormone Use and Newly Diagnosed Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Arch Intern Med, February 23, 2004; 164(4): 379 - 386. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. D. Waters, D. Gordon, J. E. Rossouw, R. O. Cannon III, P. Collins, D. M. Herrington, J. Hsia, R. Langer, L. Mosca, P. Ouyang, et al. Women's Ischemic Syndrome Evaluation: Current Status and Future Research Directions Report of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Workshop : October 2-4, 2002 : Section 4: Lessons From Hormone Replacement Trials Circulation, February 17, 2004; 109 (6): e53 - e55. [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. J. Shaw, J. F. Lewis, M. A. Hlatky, W. A. Hsueh, S. F. Kelsey, R. Klein, T. A. Manolio, A. R. Sharrett, R. P. Tracy, and Endorsed by the American College of Cardiology Fou Women's Ischemic Syndrome Evaluation: Current Status and Future Research Directions: Report of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Workshop: October 2-4, 2002: Section 5: Gender-Related Risk Factors for Ischemic Heart Disease Circulation, February 17, 2004; 109 (6): e56 - e58. [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Nikander, M. Metsa-Heikkila, A. Tiitinen, and O. Ylikorkala Evidence of a Lack of Effect of a Phytoestrogen Regimen on the Levels of C-Reactive Protein, E-Selectin, and Nitrate in Postmenopausal Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2003; 88(11): 5180 - 5185. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G.M. Hirschfield and M.B. Pepys C-reactive protein and cardiovascular disease: new insights from an old molecule QJM, November 1, 2003; 96(11): 793 - 807. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. M. Rexrode, J. E. Manson, I-M. Lee, P. M Ridker, P. M. Sluss, N. R. Cook, and J. E. Buring Sex Hormone Levels and Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Postmenopausal Women Circulation, October 7, 2003; 108(14): 1688 - 1693. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Morin-Papunen, K. Rautio, A. Ruokonen, P. Hedberg, M. Puukka, and J. S. Tapanainen Metformin Reduces Serum C-Reactive Protein Levels in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2003; 88(10): 4649 - 4654. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Wakatsuki, N. Ikenoue, K. Shinohara, K. Watanabe, and T. Fukaya Different Effects of Oral and Transdermal Estrogen Replacement Therapy on Matrix Metalloproteinase and Their Inhibitor in Postmenopausal Women Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, October 1, 2003; 23(10): 1948 - 1949. [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Makela, P. Dastidar, H. Jokela, M. Saarela, R. Punnonen, and T. Lehtimaki Effect of Long-Term Hormone Replacement Therapy on Atherosclerosis Progression in Postmenopausal Women Relates to Myeloperoxidase Promoter Polymorphism J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2003; 88(8): 3823 - 3828. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. B. Ledue and N. Rifai Preanalytic and Analytic Sources of Variations in C-reactive Protein Measurement: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment Clin. Chem., August 1, 2003; 49(8): 1258 - 1271. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. M Steinberg, N. L Guthrie, A. C Villablanca, K. Kumar, and M. J Murray Soy protein with isoflavones has favorable effects on endothelial function that are independent of lipid and antioxidant effects in healthy postmenopausal women Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2003; 78(1): 123 - 130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N.D. Stojanovic, P. Kwong, D.J. Byrne, A. Arnold, I.A. Jagroop, D. Nair, M. Press, S. Hurel, D.P. Mikhailidis, and G.M. Prelevic The Effects of Transdermal Estradiol Alone or with Cyclical Dydrogesterone on Markers of Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Postmenopausal Women with Type 2 Diabetes: A Pilot Study Angiology, July 1, 2003; 54(4): 391 - 399. [Abstract] [PDF]
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M. Yilmazer, V. Fenkci, S. Fenkci, O. Aktepe, M. Sonmezer, and G. Kurtay Association of serum complement (C3, C4) and immunoglobulin (IgG, IgM) levels with hormone replacement therapy in healthy post-menopausal women Hum. Reprod., July 1, 2003; 18(7): 1531 - 1535. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Silvestri, O. Gebara, C. Vitale, M. Wajngarten, F. Leonardo, J. A.F. Ramires, M. Fini, G. Mercuro, and G. M.C. Rosano Increased Levels of C-Reactive Protein After Oral Hormone Replacement Therapy May Not Be Related to an Increased Inflammatory Response Circulation, July 1, 2003; 107(25): 3165 - 3169. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Davison and S. R. Davis New Markers for Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Women: Impact of Endogenous Estrogen Status and Exogenous Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2003; 88(6): 2470 - 2478. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. R. Rapp, M. A. Espeland, S. A. Shumaker, V. W. Henderson, R. L. Brunner, J. E. Manson, M. L. S. Gass, M. L. Stefanick, D. S. Lane, J. Hays, et al. Effect of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Global Cognitive Function in Postmenopausal Women: The Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: A Randomized Controlled Trial JAMA, May 28, 2003; 289(20): 2663 - 2672. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Fenkci, V. Fenkci, M. Yilmazer, M. Serteser, and T. Koken Effects of short-term transdermal hormone replacement therapy on glycaemic control, lipid metabolism, C-reactive protein and proteinuria in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes or hypertension Hum. Reprod., April 1, 2003; 18(4): 866 - 870. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Rifai and P. M. Ridker Population Distributions of C-reactive Protein in Apparently Healthy Men and Women in the United States: Implication for Clinical Interpretation Clin. Chem., April 1, 2003; 49(4): 666 - 669. [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Simon, P. Boutouyrie, J.M. Simon, B. Laloux, C. Tournigand, A.I. Tropeano, S. Laurent, and P. Jaillon Influence of Tamoxifen on Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in Postmenopausal Women Circulation, December 3, 2002; 106(23): 2925 - 2929. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. M. Ridker, N. Rifai, L. Rose, J. E. Buring, and N. R. Cook Comparison of C-Reactive Protein and Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels in the Prediction of First Cardiovascular Events N. Engl. J. Med., November 14, 2002; 347(20): 1557 - 1565. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 V. Stangl, G. Baumann, and K. Stangl Coronary atherogenic risk factors in women Eur. Heart J., November 2, 2002; 23(22): 1738 - 1752. [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. S. Han, N. Sattar, K. Williams, C. Gonzalez-Villalpando, M. E.J. Lean, and S. M. Haffner Prospective Study of C-Reactive Protein in Relation to the Development of Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome in the Mexico City Diabetes Study Diabetes Care, November 1, 2002; 25(11): 2016 - 2021. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. J. Evans, H. A. Harris, C. P. Miller, S. K. Karathanasis, and S. J. Adelman Estrogen Receptors {alpha} and {beta} Have Similar Activities in Multiple Endothelial Cell Pathways Endocrinology, October 1, 2002; 143(10): 3785 - 3795. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Garnero, C. Jamin, C.-L. Benhamou, C. Pelissier, and C. Roux Effects of tibolone and combined 17{beta}-estradiol and norethisterone acetate on serum C-reactive protein in healthy post-menopausal women: a randomized trial Hum. Reprod., October 1, 2002; 17(10): 2748 - 2753. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Decensi, U. Omodei, C. Robertson, B. Bonanni, A. Guerrieri-Gonzaga, F. Ramazzotto, H. Johansson, S. Mora, M. T. Sandri, M. Cazzaniga, et al. Effect of Transdermal Estradiol and Oral Conjugated Estrogen on C-Reactive Protein in Retinoid-Placebo Trial in Healthy Women Circulation, September 3, 2002; 106(10): 1224 - 1228. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Bonello and R. J. Norman Soluble adhesion molecules in serum throughout the menstrual cycle Hum. Reprod., September 1, 2002; 17(9): 2272 - 2278. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. K. Koh Effects of estrogen on the vascular wall: vasomotor function and inflammation Cardiovasc Res, September 1, 2002; 55(4): 714 - 726. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. D. Pradhan, J. E. Manson, J. E. Rossouw, D. S. Siscovick, C. P. Mouton, N. Rifai, R. B. Wallace, R. D. Jackson, M. B. Pettinger, and P. M Ridker Inflammatory Biomarkers, Hormone Replacement Therapy, and Incident Coronary Heart Disease: Prospective Analysis From the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study JAMA, August 28, 2002; 288(8): 980 - 987. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. L. Humphrey, B. K.S. Chan, and H. C. Sox Postmenopausal Hormone Replacement Therapy and the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Ann Intern Med, August 20, 2002; 137(4): 273 - 284. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. L. Bhatt and E. J. Topol Need to Test the Arterial Inflammation Hypothesis Circulation, July 2, 2002; 106(1): 136 - 140. [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Sesmilo, K. K. Miller, and A. Klibanski Cardiovascular Risk in Women with Hypopituritarism J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2002; 87(7): 3509 - 3510. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. K.C. Ng, P. Y. Liu, A. J. Williams, S. Nakhla, L. P. Ly, D. J. Handelsman, and D. S. Celermajer Prospective Study of Effect of Androgens on Serum Inflammatory Markers in Men Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, July 1, 2002; 22(7): 1136 - 1141. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. M. Herrington, E. Vittinghoff, F. Lin, J. Fong, F. Harris, D. Hunninghake, V. Bittner, H. G. Schrott, R. S. Blumenthal, R. Levy, et al. Statin Therapy, Cardiovascular Events, and Total Mortality in the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Circulation, June 25, 2002; 105(25): 2962 - 2967. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. S. Eidelman, G. A. Lamas, C. H. Hennekens, and P. M. Ridker Aspirin, Postmenopausal Hormones, and C-Reactive Protein Arch Intern Med, February 25, 2002; 162(4): 480 - 481. [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Barrett-Connor, D. Grady, A. Sashegyi, P. W. Anderson, D. A. Cox, K. Hoszowski, P. Rautaharju, K. D. Harper, and for the MORE Investigators Raloxifene and Cardiovascular Events in Osteoporotic Postmenopausal Women: Four-Year Results From the MORE (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation) Randomized Trial JAMA, February 20, 2002; 287(7): 847 - 857. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. E Rossouw Hormones, genetic factors, and gender differences in cardiovascular disease Cardiovasc Res, February 15, 2002; 53(3): 550 - 557. [Full Text] [PDF]
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