(Circulation. 1999;100:1714-1721.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Mechanical Remodeling of the Left Atrium After Loss of Atrioventricular Synchrony
A Long-Term Study in Humans
From the Royal Melbourne Hospital Department of Cardiology (P.B.S., H.G.M., J.K.V., A.G.Y., L.E.G., J.M.K.) and The University of Melbourne Department of Medicine (P.B.S., J.M.K.), Melbourne, Australia.
Correspondence to Dr Paul Sparks, Cardiac Electrophysiology, University of California San Francisco, 500 Parnassus Ave, San Francisco, CA 94143-1354. E-mail sparks{at}ep4.ucsf.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—Tachycardia-mediated mechanical remodeling of the atrium is considered central to the pathogenesis of thromboembolism associated with chronic atrial fibrillation. Whether atrial mechanical remodeling also occurs in response to atrial stretch induced by chronic asynchronous ventricular pacing in patients with permanent pacemakers is unknown.
Methods and Results—The study design was a prospective randomized comparison between 21 patients paced chronically in the VVI mode and 11 patients paced chronically in the DDD mode for 3 months. Left atrial appendage (LAA) function and the presence of spontaneous echo contrast (SEC) were determined with transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) within 24 hours of pacemaker implantation and after 3 months. The VVI patients were then programmed to DDD and underwent a third TEE after DDD pacing for an additional 3 months. After chronic VVI pacing, LAA velocity decreased from 82.4±29.0 to 42.1±25.4 cm/s (P<0.01), LAA fractional area change decreased from 74.9±17.2% to 49.8±22.0% (P<0.01), and 4 patients (19%) developed left atrial SEC (P<0.05). With the reestablishment of chronic AV synchrony, LAA velocity increased to 61.6±18.5 cm/s (P<0.01), LAA fractional area change increased to 76.4±18.1% (P<0.01), and SEC resolved. In the 11 patients undergoing chronic DDD pacing, no significant changes in LAA velocity (baseline, 86.0±28.8 cm/s versus 3 months, 79.6±14.9 cm/s) or LAA fractional area change (baseline, 76.2±19.4% versus 72.5±15.7%) were demonstrated, and SEC did not develop.
Conclusions—Chronic loss of AV synchrony induced by VVI pacing is associated with mechanical remodeling of the left atrium, which may reverse after the reestablishment of AV synchrony with DDD pacing. This process may be partly responsible for the higher incidence of thromboembolism observed in patients undergoing VVI pacing compared with AV sequential pacing.
Key Words: atrium • pacemakers • remodeling • stroke • stunning, myocardial
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Introduction |
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Experimental evidence suggests that atrial fibrillation (AF) leads to a tachycardia-mediated atrial cardiomyopathy, resulting in not only electrophysiological but also mechanical remodeling of the atria.1 2 3 4 5 6 The importance of atrial mechanical remodeling has been demonstrated in echocardiographic studies that have linked this phenomenon with embolic stroke. These studies demonstrate that sustained AF leads to left atrial (LA) mechanical dysfunction characterized by progressive reduction in left atrial appendage (LAA) velocities, the development of LA spontaneous echo contrast (LASEC), and the formation of thrombus.7 8 9 10 11 Whether atrial mechanical remodeling occurs in other clinical situations has been less well characterized.
An emerging body of evidence demonstrates that chronic asynchronous ventricular (VVI) pacing is associated with an increased incidence of thromboembolic events.12 13 14 However, the mechanisms underlying this observation are unknown. We hypothesized that chronic VVI pacing would be associated with atrial mechanical remodeling, providing a potential explanation for the increase in thromboembolic events.
Serial transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) was used to determine the atrial mechanical consequences of chronic loss of atrioventricular (AV) synchrony in patients with pacemakers implanted for AV block or sinus bradycardia. The study was a prospective randomized comparison between patients paced in the VVI versus dual-chamber sequential (DDD) mode for periods of 3 months. After the initial 3-month period, patients initially assigned to VVI pacing were reprogrammed to DDD for an additional 3 months.
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Methods |
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Study Patients
Thirty-four patients with AV block or sinus bradycardia requiring permanent pacing were recruited. Sinus rhythm was documented before study entry, and no patient had a clinical history of paroxysmal or chronic AF. All patients gave written informed consent for the study, which was approved by the Royal Melbourne Hospital Board of Medical Research. The study methodology is summarized in Figure 1
.
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Pacemaker Implantation, Echocardiography, and
Randomization to Chronic Pacing Mode
All patients underwent implantation of bipolar passive-fixation
atrial and ventricular pacing leads, which were connected
to a dual-chamber pacemaker. The atrial lead was positioned in the
right atrial appendage and the ventricular lead at the
right ventricular apex. All patients received commercially
available multiprogrammable pacemakers that allowed retrieval of pacing
and sensing frequencies during interval periods. Pacemaker settings for
measurement of all echocardiographic
parameters and during each 3-month pacing period were
either DDD at 75 bpm with an AV delay of 180 ms or VVI at 75 bpm.
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) and TEE were performed within 24 hours of pacemaker implantation, as detailed below. Left ventricular and LA dimensions were assessed with TTE during DDD pacing. To evaluate the acute effect of loss of AV synchrony on LAA function, TEE was performed during both VVI and DDD pacing. Pacing was performed in random order, and 15 minutes separated the change in modes. LA function was assessed with TEE during DDD pacing only.
Randomization to chronic pacing mode was performed with a 2:1 VVI:DDD design. Randomization in these proportions was determined a priori, because considerable dropout in the VVI group was suspected because of intolerance to the loss of AV synchrony. At baseline, 23 patients were randomized to VVI pacing for 3 months, and 11 patients received DDD pacing. The development of thromboembolism, AF, or pacemaker syndrome associated with VVI pacing excluded patients from further study, because immediate reprogramming to DDD pacing was instituted.
Three Months After Pacemaker Implantation
Patients returned for pacemaker interrogation, TTE, and TEE as
detailed below. For patients randomized to chronic VVI pacing, TEE
parameters were initially assessed in the VVI mode, then
were reassessed 15 minutes after reprogramming to DDD mode. For
patients randomized to DDD pacing, TEE was performed in the DDD mode
only. After the TEE, patients originally programmed to chronic pacing
in the VVI mode underwent reprogramming to the DDD mode; patients
originally programmed to DDD remained in the DDD mode and were not
studied further.
Six Months After Pacemaker Implantation
Patients who had been reprogrammed to DDD pacing (from VVI) at 3
months returned for a third TEE, TTE, and pacemaker interrogation. All
echocardiographic parameters were assessed
in DDD pacing.
Echocardiographic Analysis
Patients underwent TTE with commercially available 2.5- to
3.5-MHz ultrasound transducers connected to a Hewlett-Packard Sonos
2500 ultrasound system. M-mode dimensions of LA and left
ventricular end-systolic and
end-diastolic diameters from the left parasternal
long-axis view were recorded during DDD pacing. The intercostal
space from which LA dimensions were assessed was recorded to
standardize imaging between successive studies.
A 5-MHz phased-array multiplane probe connected to a Hewlett-Packard Sonos 2500 ultrasound system was used to perform TEE. All images were recorded on half-inch super-VHS tape and analyzed offline. All LAA velocities were assessed with pulsed-wave Doppler, with the sample volume placed 1 cm into the mouth of the LAA.7 Mean maximum velocities were obtained by scanning the appendage from 0° to 180° and averaging over 20 consecutive cardiac cycles. The resultant angle was used for all subsequent analyses of LAA function. Maximum and minimum LAA areas were determined by planimetry over 20 consecutive cardiac cycles to calculate fractional area change (FAC) according to the equation FAC=maximum area-minimum area/maximum area.10 LA function was determined by measuring mitral A-wave velocities over 20 consecutive cardiac cycles during DDD pacing by pulsed-wave interrogation of mitral inflow at the level of the mitral leaflet tips.
Spontaneous echocardiographic contrast was defined as the appearance of swirling clouds of echogenicity distinct from white noise artifact. Gain settings were reduced sequentially to distinguish LASEC from noise artifact and maintained for the study duration. Changes in SEC were graded independently by 3 observers and determined by consensus.11 Analysis was performed offline, and observers were blinded to the other observers' interpretations and the preceding pacing mode.
Statistical Analysis
All variables are reported as mean±SD. A repeated-measures
ANOVA was used to compare continuous variables. Scheffé's F
test was used for multiple comparisons. The 
2
or McNemar test was used to compare categorical variables.
Statistical significance was established at P<0.05.
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Results |
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Patient Characteristics
Details of the 2 groups that completed the first 3 months of pacing are presented in Table 1
.
No significant differences in baseline variables were present.
In particular, LA dimensions, ventriculoatrial (VA) conduction, and the
proportion of patients with AV block and sinus bradycardia were similar
in both groups.
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Two patients in the VVI group were excluded after baseline evaluation because 3 months of pacing was not completed. One patient developed pacemaker syndrome with peripheral edema after 3 weeks. One patient suffered a middle cerebral artery stroke 1 week before the second TEE. Seven of the 21 patients who completed 3 months of VVI pacing and underwent the second TEE did not return for the third TEE. One patient in this group developed AF 2 days after the second TEE. Six patients withdrew voluntarily from the study after the second TEE.
Pacemaker Telemetry
Nineteen of the 21 patients who completed VVI pacing for 3 months
demonstrated 100% ventricular pacing. The remaining 2
patients demonstrated 84% and 90% ventricular pacing,
respectively. Of the 14 patients who returned at 6 months, 9
demonstrated atrial sensing/atrial pacing with 100%
ventricular pacing. The remaining 5 patients demonstrated
atrial sensing/atrial pacing with 50% to 90% ventricular
pacing. Ten of the 11 patients randomized to DDD pacing for 3 months
demonstrated atrial sensing/atrial pacing with 100%
ventricular pacing; the remaining patient demonstrated
atrial sensing/atrial pacing with 75% ventricular
pacing.
LA Size and Function
Baseline LA diameters were not significantly different between the
2 groups (VVI, 3.96±0.56 cm versus DDD, 3.72±0.67 cm). After VVI
pacing for 3 months, mean LA diameter increased from 3.96±0.56 to
4.40±0.35 cm (P<0.01). In these patients, mitral A-wave
velocity decreased from 74.1±11.0 to 39.3±9.2 cm/s
(P<0.01). After reprogramming and 3 months of chronic DDD
pacing, LA diameter decreased to 4.05±0.41 cm (P<0.01) and
mitral A-wave velocity increased to 79.0±6.6 cm/s
(P<0.01); these values were not significantly different
from baseline.
In the group randomized to chronic DDD pacing from baseline, no significant differences in LA diameter (3.72±0.67 versus 3.93±0.22 cm) or A-wave velocity (73.1±14.2 versus 71.7±19.4 cm/s) were observed after 3 months.
LAA Velocities
Baseline
Mean LAA velocity of the 34 patients decreased from 83.6±28.6
cm/s during DDD pacing to 39.1±15.7 cm/s with acute VVI pacing
(P<0.0001) (Figure 2). There
were no significant differences between LAA velocities during acute VVI
pacing in patients undergoing longitudinal study in the VVI mode
(38.3±14.7 cm/s) versus the DDD mode (41.0±17.1 cm/s).
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, mean LAA velocity. SD is indicated.
During DDD pacing, the LAA velocity profile resembled the
biphasic signal that is well described during sinus
rhythm15 (Figures 4 and 6). During VVI
pacing, 2 distinct velocity profiles were observed. In the presence of
VA conduction, the LAA velocity signal directly followed the paced QRS
complex. The signal remained biphasic, with discrete emptying and
filling waves coinciding with contraction and relaxation of the LAA as
observed with real-time 2D imaging. In the absence of VA conduction,
the timing of LAA contraction had no consistent relationship
with the paced QRS complex, and the signal oscillated between
that of DDD pacing when atrial contraction occurred immediately before
the paced ventricular complex and low-amplitude signals
resembling those observed in chronic AF9 15 (Figure 6).
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Three Months
After chronic VVI pacing, LAA velocities measured during VVI
pacing decreased from 38.2±14.7 cm/s at baseline to 23.9±8.7 cm/s at
3 months (P<0.0001) (Table 2). In this group, LAA velocities
measured during DDD pacing decreased from 82.4±29.0 cm/s at baseline
to 42.1±25.4 cm/s at 3 months (P<0.01) (Table 3 and Figures 3 and 4
).
After chronic DDD pacing, no significant differences between LAA
velocities at baseline (86.0±28.8 cm/s) and 3 months (79.6±14.9 cm/s)
were demonstrated (Table 3 and Figures 3 and 4).
Patients with AV block and sinus bradycardia demonstrated similar
trends in LAA function after either chronic VVI or DDD pacing (Table 4).
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) indicate chronic pacing mode in the interval
3-month period; x, individual LAA velocity measurements during DDD
pacing; and
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Six Months
Fourteen patients (67%) returned for a third TEE at 6 months (3
months after conversion from chronic VVI to chronic DDD pacing). Mean
LAA velocity increased to 61.6±18.5 cm/s at 6 months
(P<0.01); this value was significantly lower than baseline
(82.4±29.0 cm/s, P<0.01) (Figure 3, Table 3). Similar improvements in LAA velocities were evident for
patients with AV block and sinus bradycardia after 3 months of DDD
pacing. However, patients with sinus bradycardia tended to have lower
velocities at 6 months than did those with AV block (Table 4).
LAA Fractional Area Change
Baseline
LA appendage FAC decreased significantly, from 75.3±17.7% during
DDD pacing to 38.3±13.5% during VVI pacing in 34 patients at acute
baseline evaluation (P<0.0001).
Three Months
After chronic VVI pacing, LAA FAC measured during VVI pacing
decreased from 40.8±12.3% at baseline to 29.0±14.5% at 3 months
(P<0.01) (Table 2). In this group, LAA FAC measured
during DDD pacing decreased from 74.9±17.2% at baseline to
49.8±22.0% at 3 months (P<0.01) (Table 3). After
chronic DDD pacing, no significant changes between LAA FAC at baseline
(76.2±19.4%) and 3 months (72.5±15.7%) were demonstrated (Figure 5). Patients with AV block and sinus
bradycardia demonstrated similar trends in LAA FAC after either chronic
VVI or DDD pacing (Table 4).
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Six Months
Three months after reprogramming from VVI to DDD, LAA FAC
increased to 76.4±18.1% (P<0.01) (Table 3). This
value was not significantly different from baseline (68.4±16.0%)
(Figure 5). Patients with AV block and sinus bradycardia
demonstrated similar improvements in LAA FAC after 3 months of DDD
pacing (Table 4).
LASEC and Thrombus
No patient had LASEC at baseline in the DDD mode. With acute loss
of AV synchrony during VVI pacing at baseline, 8 of the 34 patients
(23.5%) developed LASEC (2 dense and 6 light) (P<0.01)
(Figure 6). Of the 21 patients completing
3 months of VVI pacing, 4 patients (19.0%) had persistent light LASEC
during assessment in the DDD mode, with an associated mean LAA velocity
of 28.4±5.8 cm/s. In no patient was LA thrombus demonstrated. At the
6-month assessment (after reprogramming to chronic DDD pacing for 3
months), SEC had resolved in all patients. No patients paced
chronically in the DDD mode developed LASEC (P<0.05 versus
chronic VVI pacing).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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This study presents new information regarding mechanical remodeling of the atrium in humans after chronic loss of AV synchrony. First, significant LAA dysfunction developed immediately after the loss of AV synchrony associated with VVI pacing compared with DDD pacing. Both LAA velocities and FAC decreased with VVI pacing, and 23.5% of patients developed LASEC. Second, chronic VVI pacing for 3 months produced a further decrease in LAA function and promoted the development of LASEC. Even with reprogramming to DDD mode, significant LAA dysfunction persisted. This phenomenon resembles both the atrial mechanical remodeling that develops with chronic AF and the atrial "stunning" observed after the cardioversion of AF to sinus rhythm.7 8 9 10 Third, with the reestablishment of AV synchrony through reprogramming to chronic DDD pacing, LAA dysfunction was demonstrated to be partly reversible. Finally, chronic DDD pacing for 3 months with maintenance of AV synchrony was not associated with atrial mechanical remodeling, and hence these observations are not a manifestation of pacing per se.
Mechanical remodeling of the atria has been described previously in patients with chronic AF and atrial flutter.10 16 17 Progressive dilatation and mechanical dysfunction of the LA and LAA develop, with the magnitude of structural and functional change correlating with arrhythmia chronicity.8 Corroborative experimental evidence also suggests that rapid atrial pacing and AF lead to a tachycardia-mediated atrial cardiomyopathy, resulting in progressive anatomic remodeling of the atria.1 2 3 4 5 6 Structural remodeling of the atria also results from atrial stretch. Animal models of mitral valve fibrosis, tricuspid valve avulsion/pulmonary artery banding, and pacing-induced ventricular failure have demonstrated atrial dilatation.18 19 20
Effects of Loss of AV Synchrony on LA Function
Right ventricular apical pacing with loss of AV
synchrony results in altered ventricular activation,
ventricular dysfunction, mitral
regurgitation, and atrial contraction against closed AV
valves, leading to increased atrial pressures and volumes at rest and
during exercise.21 22 Few prospective studies have
examined the consequences of chronic VVI pacing on atrial size and
function.13 23 Nielsen et al13 evaluated
changes in LA diameter after 5.5±2.4 years of AAI or VVI pacing, with
greater increases in LA diameter demonstrated after VVI pacing. Atrial
dilatation was independent of AF, retrograde VA conduction, and mitral
regurgitation, suggesting that pacing mode alone was
responsible for LA dilatation.
Unlike previous studies, we measured LA size and function during DDD pacing, and the acute effects of increased pressure on atrial size from loss of AV synchrony were minimized. Nonetheless, both LA dilatation and LA dysfunction were demonstrated after chronic VVI pacing. Two patients developed possible complications of VVI pacing (AF and stroke), which may relate to LA dysfunction. Atrial dilatation and dysfunction regressed with the reestablishment of AV synchrony, suggesting that LA remodeling may be reversible.24
TEE Studies of Cardiac Pacing
One preliminary study demonstrated LAA velocities to be lower
during acute VVI pacing than DDD pacing.25 The present
study confirms this finding but also demonstrates that acute loss of AV
synchrony is associated with a reduction in LAA FAC and the development
of LASEC.
The present study prospectively evaluated changes in LAA function after chronic cardiac pacing and demonstrated LAA velocities to decrease in association with a reduction in FAC and the development of SEC. Although atrial thrombus was not demonstrated, it cannot be completely excluded, especially in light of the occurrence of stroke in 1 patient. Our findings are in agreement with previous studies that have shown LAA velocities to be lower and LASEC more frequent with VVI pacing.25 26 27
After the reestablishment of AV synchrony with chronic DDD pacing, LAA function improved with the disappearance of LASEC, suggesting that the observed atrial remodeling may be reversible. This recovery of atrial mechanical function resembles that observed after cardioversion from AF.24
Potential Mechanisms of Atrial Mechanical Remodeling
The cause of atrial mechanical remodeling after VVI pacing is not
known. The reduction in atrial contractile function may be analogous to
that observed when ventricular myocardium is
exposed to volume overload. Chronic volume and pressure overload causes
a reduction in myocardial energy production and supply,
alteration in contractile proteins, myofibril dropout, the expression
of fetal isoforms, and a decrease in myosin calcium
ATPase.28 Similar events could explain the atrial
contractile dysfunction observed in the present study. Canine
atrial anatomic remodeling secondary to AF is manifested as replacement
of sarcomeres by glycogen and atrial cardiomyocyte
dedifferentiation with reexpression of embryonic contractile and
cytoskeletal proteins.4 Tissue from dilated human atria
demonstrates myofibrillar replacement by clusters of irregular
mitochondria, aggregates of dilated sarcoplasmic reticulum, and
glycogen.29 Similar structural changes may explain the
atrial remodeling observed with VVI pacing. Stretch-induced
intracellular calcium overload might also contribute, given the
important role of calcium overload in rate-related atrial mechanical
dysfunction.5
Limitations
Right heart catheterization was not performed
because of the risks of displacing recently implanted pacing leads.
Previous studies have confirmed that biatrial pressures increase with
VVI pacing, and similar findings are likely to have been observed in
the present study.21 22 Only LAA function and
mitral A-wave velocities were used to characterize atrial remodeling.
Given the complex 3D anatomy of the LA, certain regions
(nontrabeculated) may be more susceptible to stretch than
other regions (trabeculated), and remodeling could occur
heterogeneously. Indeed, differential stretch related to
degree of trabeculation has been demonstrated in the right
atrium, leading to heterogeneous atrial electrical
remodeling.30 Our study did not address changes in right
atrial size and function, and whether mechanical remodeling of the
right atrium also develops after loss of AV synchrony is unknown.
Conclusions
Chronic loss of AV synchrony with VVI pacing is associated with
mechanical remodeling of the atrium. Acute VVI pacing produces an
immediate decrease in LAA function with the development of LASEC.
Chronic loss of AV synchrony leads to further deterioration in LAA
function, which persists in the short term even with resumption of AV
synchrony through DDD pacing. Provision of AV synchrony with subsequent
chronic DDD pacing leads to an improvement in LAA function. Reversible
atrial mechanical remodeling may occur in humans after the chronic loss
of AV synchrony, and this suggests a possible mechanism for the
increased incidence of stroke in patients undergoing chronic VVI
pacing.
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Acknowledgments |
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Dr Sparks is the recipient of a Postgraduate Medical Research Scholarship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia.
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Footnotes |
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This report was presented in part and received first prize in the NASPE Young Investigators' Competition, 19th Annual Scientific Sessions, San Diego, Calif, 1998, and the Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand Ralph Reader Prize for Clinical Research, 46th Annual Scientific Sessions, Perth, Australia, 1998.
Received November 9, 1998; revision received June 1, 1999; accepted July 12, 1999.
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