(Circulation. 1999;100:33-40.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Clinical Investigation and Reports |
Effect of Hypertension on Mortality in Pima Indians
From the Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phoenix, Arizona.
Correspondence to Dr Robert G. Nelson, National Institutes of Health, 1550 East Indian School Road, Phoenix, AZ 85014-4972. E-mail rnelson{at}phx.niddk.nih.gov
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Abstract |
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Background—The effect of hypertension on mortality was examined in 5284 Pima Indians, 1698 of whom had type 2 diabetes at baseline or developed it during follow-up.
Methods and Results—During a median follow-up of 12.2 years (range, 0.01 to 24.8 years), 470 nondiabetic subjects and 488 diabetic subjects died. In the nondiabetic subjects, 45 of the deaths were due to cardiovascular disease, 208 to other natural causes, and 217 to external causes; in the diabetic subjects, 106 of the deaths were due to cardiovascular disease, 85 to diabetic nephropathy, 226 to other natural causes, and 71 to external causes. In the nondiabetic subjects, after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, and serum cholesterol concentration in a proportional hazards model, hypertension predicted death from cardiovascular disease (death rate ratio [DRR]=2.8; 95% CI, 1.4 to 5.6; P=0.003). In the diabetic subjects, after additional adjustment for duration of diabetes, plasma glucose concentration, and proteinuria, hypertension strongly predicted deaths from diabetic nephropathy (DRR=3.5; 95% CI, 1.7 to 7.2; P<0.001), but it had little effect on deaths from cardiovascular disease (DRR=1.4; 95% CI, 0.88 to 2.3; P=0.15).
Conclusions—We propose that the weak relationship between hypertension and cardiovascular disease in diabetic Pima Indians is not because of a diminished effect of hypertension on cardiovascular disease in diabetes, but because of a relatively greater effect of hypertension on the progression of diabetic nephropathy. Factors that may account for this finding in Pima Indians include a younger age at onset of type 2 diabetes, a low frequency of heavy smoking, favorable lipoprotein profiles and, possibly, enhanced susceptibility to renal disease.
Key Words: cardiovascular diseases • diabetes mellitus • epidemiology • hypertension • Indians, North American • mortality • proportional hazards models
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Introduction |
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Hypertension is an important factor in premature death, and it contributes to several of the leading causes of death in the United States, including heart disease, stroke, and renal disease.1 2 3 4 Differences in the age at onset, frequency, and severity of hypertension are responsible for substantial variations in death rates and causes of death in different racial and ethnic groups.5 Furthermore, coexistent diseases may modify or obscure the effect of hypertension on mortality. In particular, diabetes, which is associated with a high frequency of hypertension,6 7 is independently associated with increased death rates from heart disease, stroke, and renal disease.8 9 10 11 12
Pima Indians from the Gila River Indian Community in Arizona have a lower prevalence of hypertension than the general US population7 and a substantially lower prevalence and incidence rate of heart disease.13 14 However, they have the world's highest incidence rate of type 2 diabetes, and more than 20 times the rate of end-stage renal disease.15 Thus, the relative influence of hypertension on noncardiovascular mortality may be greater in this population than in others. In the present study, we examined the effect of hypertension on overall and cause-specific mortality in the Pima Indians.
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Subjects and Methods |
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Pima and the closely-related Tohono O'odham Indians from the Gila River Indian Community are participating in a longitudinal diabetes study.16 This study was approved by the review boards of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases and by the Tribal Council. Since 1965, each member of the Community
5 years of age is asked to have a research examination
every 2 years. Informed consent is given at each examination. These
examinations include a glucose tolerance test, with determination of
the glucose concentration in venous plasma drawn 2 hours after a 75-g
oral carbohydrate load. Diabetes was defined according to World Health
Organization criteria.17 The date of diagnosis was
determined from the research examinations or from review of clinical
records if diabetes was diagnosed in the course of routine medical
care.
Blood pressure was measured to the nearest 2 mm Hg with a mercury
sphygmomanometer while the subject rested in the supine position.
Hypertension was defined (using the criteria of the sixth report of the
Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and
Treatment of High Blood Pressure18 ) as a systolic
blood pressure 140 mm Hg, a diastolic blood
pressure 90 mm Hg, or treatment with antihypertensive medicine.
Proteinuria was defined as a protein-to-creatinine ratio of
at least 0.5 g/g, equivalent to a total protein excretion rate of
500 mg or more per day.
Between January 1, 1965 and December 31, 1989, 5506 subjects who were
at least half Pima or Tohono O'odham Indian and who had 1 research
examination(s) after 15 years of age resided in the Community. A total
of 222 of these subjects were excluded from the study because of
missing blood pressure data. The vital status of the remaining 5284
subjects as of December 31, 1989 was determined. For all deaths, the
accuracy and completeness of the underlying and contributory causes
reported on death certificates were assessed by review of clinical
records and reports of autopsy and medical examiner
findings.19 20 The adjudicated causes were coded in
accordance with the guidelines of the National Center for Health
Statistics. The terminology and codes of the ninth revision of the
International Classification of Disease21 were
used for recording causes of death and other diagnoses.
Statistical Analysis
Death rates were calculated as the number of subjects who died
divided by the person-years of follow-up and expressed per 1000/year.
If subjects developed diabetes during follow-up, their person-years
were apportioned to the appropriate stratum. The period of risk
extended from the date of the first examination to death or December
31, 1989. Death rates were standardized to the 1980 Pima Indian
population, and death rate ratios (DRRs) comparing overall and
cause-specific death rates were computed from the age- and
age/sex-adjusted rates. Confidence intervals were computed from the
logarithms of the rate ratios.22
The effect of hypertension on mortality was examined using a Cox proportional hazards model to control for the effects of potentially confounding variables. Regression analyses were done separately in the nondiabetic and diabetic subjects. Subjects who had eligible follow-up both when nondiabetic and later when diabetic were included in both analyses. Of the 4296 subjects (17%) who were nondiabetic at baseline, 710 developed diabetes during the study period; 674 of them (95%) had at least 1 research examination after the onset of diabetes. For diabetic subjects, the baseline examination was the first examination at or after the diagnosis of diabetes at which blood pressure was measured. For nondiabetic subjects, the baseline examination was the first examination after 15 years of age at which blood pressure was measured. Continuous variables included in the regression models were centered at their mean baseline values. The effects of time-dependent variables were assessed at baseline and as they changed at subsequent examinations. If the values changed, the new values were included for the appropriate time periods. Squared (quadratic) terms for body mass index, plasma glucose concentration, and serum cholesterol concentration were included in some models because the effect of these variables for specific causes of death was shown previously to be U-shaped.23 24 25 Product terms of predictor variables did not improve the regression models and were not included. The adequacy of the fit of each model to individual observations was assessed by inspection of deviance residuals.
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Results |
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Of the 5284 subjects (2452 men, 2832 women)
15 years old, 958
(578 men, 380 women) died during a median follow-up of 12.2 years
(range, 0.01 to 24.8 years); 470 of the deaths (329 men, 141 women)
were in the 4296 subjects without diabetes, and 488 (249 men, 239
women) were in the 1698 subjects who had diabetes at the baseline
examination or developed it during follow-up. Clinical and demographic
features of the study population at baseline are shown in Table 1
. The diabetic subjects were
older, on average, and more obese than those without diabetes, and
their mean arterial pressure and serum
cholesterol concentrations were higher. Hypertension was
present in 17% of the nondiabetic subjects and in 53% of those
with diabetes at their initial examination.
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A total of 217 of the 470 deaths (46%) in the nondiabetic subjects and
71 of the 488 deaths (15%) in the diabetic subjects were due to
external causes (Table 2), reflecting the
higher proportion of traumatic deaths in the younger, nondiabetic
subjects. Age-specific rates for natural causes of death were higher in
diabetic subjects than nondiabetic ones and higher in men than women.
The death rate rose with increasing age in both sexes, and it was
generally higher in the hypertensive than the normotensive subjects
(Figure 1). In those subjects without
diabetes, the effect of hypertension on natural causes of death was
greater in men than in women (men: DRR=1.5; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.0; women:
DRR=1.0; 95% CI, 0.64 to 1.7). However, in the diabetic subjects, the
effect was greater in women (men: DRR=1.1; 95% CI, 0.83 to 1.6; women:
DRR=1.8; 95% CI, 1.3 to 2.6).
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Cardiovascular disease, which accounted for 18% (n=45)
of the natural causes of death in nondiabetic Pima Indians and 25%
(n=106) of the natural deaths in those with diabetes, was more strongly
related to hypertension in the nondiabetic subjects (Table 2
;
nondiabetic subjects: DRR=2.6; 95% CI, 1.2 to 5.6; diabetic subjects:
DRR=1.2; 95% CI, 0.72 to 1.9). Furthermore, the effect of hypertension
on cardiovascular disease in the nondiabetic subjects
was greater in men than women (men: DRR=4.9; 95% CI, 1.9 to 13.1;
women: DRR=1.4; 95% CI, 0.45 to 4.3); however, in the diabetic
subjects, hypertension had a slightly greater effect in women (men:
DRR=1.1; 95% CI, 0.62 to 2.0; women: DRR=1.4; 95% CI; 0.67 to 2.9)
(Figure 2).
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The effect of hypertension on deaths from
cardiovascular disease in nondiabetic subjects was due
principally to its effect on deaths from stroke (Table 2).
Hypertensive subjects, compared with those with normal blood pressure,
were 4.6 times (95% CI, 1.4 to 15) more likely to die from a stroke.
However, in diabetic subjects, those with hypertension were only 1.3
times (95% CI, 0.5 to 3.3) as likely to die from a stroke. The effect
of hypertension on deaths from stroke was greater in the nondiabetic
men than women (men: DRR=5.6; 95% CI, 1.2 to 25; women: DRR=3.7; 95%
CI, 0.54 to 25), but it was similar in both sexes in the diabetic
subjects (men: DRR=1.2; 95% CI, 0.31 to 4.5; women: DRR=1.3; 95% CI,
0.34 to 4.9) (Figure 3).
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Diabetic nephropathy, which accounted for 20% (n=85) of
the natural causes of death in diabetic Pima Indians, was strongly
related to hypertension (DRR=4.3; 95% CI, 2.2 to 8.4). The effect of
hypertension was greater in women than men (men: DRR=3.0; 95% CI, 1.1
to 8.1; women: DRR=5.4; 95% CI, 1.9 to 15.5) (Figure 4).
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When examined in a Cox proportional hazards model adjusting for age,
sex, serum cholesterol concentration, and body mass index,
hypertension in nondiabetic subjects was strongly associated with
cardiovascular deaths (P=0.003) but less
associated with other natural causes of death (P=0.09; Table 3). In the diabetic subjects,
hypertension was strongly associated with deaths from diabetic
nephropathy (P<0.001) but not with deaths from
cardiovascular disease (P=0.15) or other
natural causes (P=0.13), after adjusting for age, sex,
duration of diabetes, 2-hour post-load plasma glucose concentration,
serum cholesterol concentration, body mass index, and
proteinuria (Table 4). The number of
stroke deaths was too small (n=20) to make a valid estimate of the
independent effect of hypertension in a multiple regression model.
Hypertension did not affect deaths from external causes in either the
nondiabetic or diabetic subjects (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Hypertension increased the death rate from cardiovascular disease nearly 3-fold in nondiabetic Pima Indians; however, in contrast with findings from other populations,8 9 10 11 it had little effect on cardiovascular deaths in those with diabetes. The apparent lack of effect in the diabetic subjects may be due to competing causes of death. Cardiovascular disease and diabetic renal disease share many of the same risk factors, including hypertension; and hypertension had a major effect on deaths from diabetic nephropathy, increasing the death rate 4-fold. Hypertension in the presence of inherited susceptibility to renal disease may accelerate the development of diabetic nephropathy relative to cardiovascular disease and may explain its reduced effect on cardiovascular deaths. In addition, the younger age at onset of type 2 diabetes in the Pima Indians,22 26 the lower prevalence of heavy smoking (see below),13 27 and the lower serum concentrations of total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol when compared with US Caucasians28 may limit the number of Pima Indians with preexisting macrovascular disease at the onset of diabetes and provide a greater opportunity for renal disease to develop before life-threatening cardiovascular disease has time to evolve. Hypertension had almost no effect on deaths from ischemic heart disease in either the nondiabetic or diabetic subjects, presumably because these other risk factors were missing. Nevertheless, death rates from ischemic heart disease were much higher in the diabetic subjects, presumably because risk factors other than hypertension were overwhelmingly more important.
In Pima Indians, the lower prevalence of clinically diagnosed and electrocardiographically and autopsy-proven atherosclerotic coronary heart disease29 30 and the lower incidence of fatal coronary heart disease compared with US Caucasians14 seems paradoxical in view of the high rates of type 2 diabetes. Competing causes of death in those with diabetes, as proposed in the present study, may explain this paradox. Recent studies indicate that deaths from ischemic heart disease in American Indians are increasing,31 32 a finding that is attributable, at least in part, to greater use of renal replacement therapy and to a substantial improvement in survival during such therapy.31 33 34 The resulting enhanced survival of diabetic patients, who otherwise would have died from renal disease, permits many of them to die from cardiovascular disease. The evidence that coronary heart disease rates in American Indians actually exceed rates in other US populations35 is based on comparisons that do not account for differences in the prevalence and duration of diabetes.
In nondiabetic subjects, hypertension had a greater adverse effect on mortality in men than in women, but in those with diabetes, the effect was greater in the women. Among the diabetic subjects, this was particularly striking for deaths from diabetic nephropathy; hypertension increased the age-adjusted death rate from diabetic nephropathy 5-fold in the women and 3-fold in the men. Studies in this population and others indicate that diabetes has a relatively greater impact on mortality in women than men,8 9 19 36 37 and the present study suggests that this effect is mediated, at least in part, by the differential effect of hypertension in the sexes.
In both diabetic and nondiabetic subjects, hypertension was generally
associated with higher death rates from other natural causes of death
unrelated to renal or cardiovascular disease, but the
effect was small and not consistent for specific causes of
death (Table 2). In addition, hypertension had no effect on
external causes of death.
Less than 1% of adult Pima Indians smoke 1 pack of cigarettes
per day,13 27 and previous studies in this population
found that smoking did not predict either diabetic microvascular
disease27 or heart disease.13 Because of the
low frequency of heavy smoking, it was not included as a covariate in
the present study. In addition, serum insulin concentration was not
included as a covariate because neither fasting nor 2-hour post-load
insulin concentration predicted the development of electrocardiographic
abnormalities in Pima Indians.38
In conclusion, hypertension strongly predicted deaths from stroke in nondiabetic Pima Indians and from nephropathy in those with type 2 diabetes. Hypertension had no identifiable effect on deaths from ischemic heart disease in either the nondiabetic or diabetic subjects or on deaths from stroke in the diabetic subjects. These observations are probably explained by the limited exposure to other risk factors for cardiovascular disease in this population and by competing causes of death, whereby the diabetic subjects die from renal disease before they develop life-threatening cardiovascular disease. Without the risk of diabetic renal disease, the nondiabetic subjects lived long enough for hypertension to promote fatal strokes.
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Acknowledgments |
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The authors are indebted to the members of the Gila River Indian Community for participating in this investigation.
Received December 14, 1998; revision received March 24, 1999; accepted April 15, 1999.
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